The cause of Red Cloud’s defiance stemmed from the U.S. Army’s 1865 fort construction in the Lakota territory. Here, the Army sought to protect American settlers using the Bozeman Trail, rushing to gold mines further west. The Trail cut through the Powder River Basin, traditional Lakota hunting grounds, and given to the tribe via an 1851 treaty.
In June 1866, Red Cloud discovered the Army’s fort building during peace talks at Fort Laramie (Wyoming). Angered, he vowed resistance. To the Americans’ future chagrin, they’d found a clever opponent for the duration of Red Cloud’s War.
A Lakota Chief Like No Other
Born in 1822 near the Platte River Forks of Nebraska Territory, Red Cloud hailed from the Oglala Lakota Sioux tribe.
At age three, his parents passed, whereupon his uncle, a respected leader named Chief Smoke, raised him. More than an uncle, Chief Smoke taught him about leadership, diplomacy, and the Lakota’s strong communal ties. As a young warrior, Red Cloud demonstrated bravery and skill. At 16, he miraculously survived an arrow wound. He fought against the Cree, Shoshone, and other traditional enemies. By the time of this war, Red Cloud was a seasoned warrior.
More importantly, Red Cloud possessed tactical skills and a strategic sense. He knew only an organized reaction allowed for any victory against the U.S. Army. Red Cloud proved politically and militarily adaptable—and a firm believer in Lakota rights.
The Leadup to the Conflict
As mentioned, relations between the Lakota and the U.S. Army had been tense for years. Despite the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie, continual American encroachment and expansion angered the Native signers.
Conflict broke out in June 1866. When Red Cloud learned of the three forts, he saw these as a betrayal and stormed out. He refused any compromise, demanding the forts’ removal. Next, Red Cloud flexed his diplomatic and military skills. He traveled to Northern Arapaho and Cheyenne tribal councils, seeking unity.
Though dependable allies, they lacked Red Cloud’s vision. By outlining their common goal and ultimate survival, the other tribes allied with Red Cloud. Soon, Red Cloud’s ranks swelled with warriors. These numbers would vary during the war.
Problems From the Start
Though tasked with keeping the Bozeman Trail open and protecting settlers, the mission grew increasingly difficult. The logistical and tactical situations were not in the U.S. Army’s favor. And Red Cloud cannily exploited their weaknesses without mercy.
First, the three forts lay deep in Native territory, so getting supplies or reinforcements proved difficult. Red Cloud’s ambushes didn’t help. Fighting took place during the brutal winters of Montana and Wyoming. Conducting a war in rugged country with harsh winters didn’t help.
Red Cloud’s Guerrilla War
Before the war started, the Army thought Red Cloud intelligent and formidable. Still, they underestimated him greatly. With nearly 2,000 Native warriors at his disposal, he proved his mettle as a leader.
Red Cloud’s guerrilla tactics came as a nasty surprise. He refused fixed battles instead relying on constant raids, ambushes, and hit-and-run tactics. The Native warriors kept the pressure constant, hitting supply trains and patrols and besieging the forts.
Under Red Cloud’s directions, his warbands kept up daily raids on the forts. This strategy proved effective, leading to a critical battle on December 21, 1866: the Fetterman Massacre.
Here, a Native warband prevailed after a short, sharp fight. One group, led by future famous Crazy Horse, lured a force under U.S. Army Captain Fetterman into a pitched battle, despite Army orders not to. Once over a nearby ridge, some 1,000 Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Sioux fighters attacked, killing all 81 soldiers, including Fetterman. This inflicted the worst defeat on the U.S. Army during the Plains Wars (until the Battle of the Little Bighorn). Again, directly due to Red Cloud’s leadership, though sources vary if the Oglala war chief participated.
Red Cloud’s Strategy Validated
The following two long years of war validated Red Cloud’s irregular warfare strategy. Their efforts kept the American soldiers holed up in their forts and not controlling the Boseman Trail or Powder River country.
Throughout 1867 and into 1868, Red Cloud’s warriors maintained pressure as military expenses and casualties only grew. Finally, on May 29, 1868, both sides signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie. The Army soon abandoned the forts and Native territory.
Red Cloud holds one distinction that no other Native chief can claim: he beat the U.S. Army. His skills, willpower, and tactics forced the Americans to concede defeat.
