After Commodore Matthew Perry visited Japan and cajoled the Tokugawa Shogunate to establish commercial and diplomatic relations, Japanese society was riven by divisions between modernizers and traditionalists. The modernizers eventually triumphed in the Meiji Restoration of 1868, after which Japan sought to create its own empire in Asia.
Commodore Perry’s Visit to Japan
In 1853, US Navy Commodore Matthew Perry set out on an expedition from the United States with the intention of visiting Japan and insisting that the reclusive country open its ports to trade with America. President Millard Filmore’s administration hoped to send a message to Europe that it was a force to be reckoned with by succeeding at a mission that European powers had failed in on several occasions. It also displayed the reach and influence of America’s new steam-powered warships.
Up to this point, Japan had allowed the Dutch to maintain a port on an island off the city of Nagasaki. This was the only contact allowed between foreigners and Japan. Perry arrived in Edo Bay and landed a small force in July 1853. After delivering the administration’s ultimatum, Perry departed with the aim of returning with a larger squadron to receive Japan’s answer. Japan’s shogun, Tokugawa Ieyoshi, was old and sick by the time Perry landed. His government had agreed to receive the letter, but was divided on how to respond to it.
Japanese leaders had long sought to keep their nation from being exposed to outside influences due to a multitude of reasons. They feared allowing mass conversion to Christianity. They also feared that Japan could be at risk of being colonized by European powers. As a result, Japan maintained intense isolation from the outside world until Perry’s squadron arrived. When Perry’s squadron docked its ships in Edo Bay, Japanese people saw firsthand the technological superiority of America’s navy, something that they could not yet match.
Terms of the Treaty of Kanagawa
When Perry’s squadron returned, the Japanese government was in turmoil. Ieyoshi had died and was replaced by his son Tokugawa Iesada. The inexperienced shogun left power in the hands of the Council of Elders, headed by Abe Masahiro. Abe did not think that Japan was strong enough to hold off an attack by the Americans. He consulted Japan’s regional lords known as the daimyō to determine what the response should be. An inconclusive result meant that Abe was able to convince other Elders to support his decision to accept Perry’s terms.
On March 31, 1854, Japan and the United States agreed to the Treaty of Kanagawa. Signed near the port of Yokohama, the treaty did not yet open trade with the US, but it granted the Americans numerous concessions. For instance, it allowed the US to open two coaling stations at the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate. It also ensured that American sailors shipwrecked on the Japanese coast could be rescued without fear of being imprisoned. Lastly, it allowed the United States to open a consulate at Shimoda, the first American diplomatic outpost on Japanese soil.
Japan was not yet ready to open full trade and diplomatic relations with the United States when the treaty was signed. As a result, Perry agreed to put off an agreement with these conditions until a later date. Nonetheless, the Treaty of Kanagawa proved to be a seminal point in Japanese history. It led to Japan’s opening and the rise of its own imperial ambitions.
The Harris Treaty
In 1856, Townsend Harris arrived in Japan to take up the post of Consul General. The diplomat hoped to sign a full trade agreement between the United States and Japan but lacked the support of a major military force such as Perry’s squadron to back up his demands. It ultimately took him a longer time to get a treaty with the shogunate and he often faced challenges, not only from Japanese officials but also from European diplomats demanding favorable trade concessions of their own.
By July 1858, Harris managed to obtain a treaty with the Japanese that expanded on the Treaty of Kanagawa. Several other ports were opened to trade with the United States. Additionally, foreign nationals accused of crimes would be tried by their own countries in consular courts instead of Japan’s legal system. This last point was because Harris believed that Japan went after foreigners disproportionately for crimes they were accused of. The Harris Treaty not only gave America extensive trading privileges with Japan, it also effectively reduced Japan’s sovereignty.
Tokugawa Iesada agreed to sign the Harris Treaty against the wishes of Emperor Kōmei because he feared that America would use force to get what it wanted. China had been attacked by the British and French in the Opium Wars and forced to sign “unequal treaties.” Japan hoped to avoid this outcome and was willing to give Harris what he wanted. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce became one of the first unequal treaties Japan signed with Western countries as the shogunate period came to a close.
Establishing Ties With European Powers
Once Japan and the United States signed a treaty, the way was open for other powers with a presence in the region to follow suit. Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom was eager to establish trade relations with Japan on favorable terms. Her High Commissioner for the Far East, Lord Elgin, went to Japan with the aim of securing similar terms to the Harris Treaty. Under the ensuing Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce, Britain was granted a diplomatic post in Edo and British ships were allowed to trade in three ports.
France also desired a trade agreement with Japan. Its envoy to China, Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros, followed suit and obtained a treaty that copied the American one: a diplomatic post in Edo and access to five trading ports. While France did not have the same diplomatic leverage as Britain, it was still powerful enough to convince Japan to sign a treaty with them.
During the 19th century, the Russian Empire turned its gaze eastwards. Russian settlements in the Far East expanded during the century, and Russian officials also sought influence in Japan. While Russia obtained its own treaty, Russo-Japanese ties would deteriorate quickly over the following decades as both powers contested for influence in Manchuria and Korea.
The End of the Shogunate
The treaties that the Shogunate signed with America and the Europeans exposed Japan’s weaknesses. If the country had really wanted to remain isolated, it would have developed the technology needed for its military to keep foreign ships away. It also would have ensured that it could attain technological parity with Western nations. On January 30, 1867, Emperor Kōmei died and was replaced by his son, Meiji. He proceeded to strip Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu of his power and announced the restoration of imperial rule. This coincided with a drive by imperial ministers to modernize the nation.
Meiji and his ministers sought to transform Japan into a nation capable of defending itself and providing effective social services. Massive industrialization took place, especially in the silk industry. Numerous castles associated with daimyōs loyal to the shogunate were destroyed and Shintoism became a state religion. Japan’s newly established trading relations allowed the country to import technology, allowing for greater industrial output. It also centralized authority by creating prefectures that consolidated imperial rule over all of the islands.
Many Samurai were enraged with losing their power and the restructuring of the military. Repeated revolts took place against Meiji’s rule. In 1877, Saigō Takamori, initially a supporter of Meiji, led the most persistent samurai rebellion during the restoration period. However, the imperial government had received assistance from Western advisors that professionalized the new Imperial Japanese Army. Mass conscription ensured that the government outnumbered the rebels. It also ensured that Japan had a military to work with when it set about building an empire.
