As the 19th century progressed, ripples of unrest began to echo throughout the young country of the United States. Largely relying on the labor of slaves, the country grew powerful and achieved new heights of success and influence on the global stage. However, many were growing dissatisfied with the status quo and sought ways to eliminate the scourge of human bondage from America’s soil. John Brown was one of those who despised the existence of slavery, and he would stop at nothing to see its end.
Abolitionist From Birth
John Brown’s fervent dedication to the cause of abolition came as no surprise. He was raised in a family that was staunchly opposed to the idea of slavery. His father, Owen, was a dedicated abolitionist, and the family also held deeply religious views. John was born in Torrington, Connecticut in 1800, but the family moved to Ohio when he was a child.
John was a quiet child who often spent time alone, but he was especially close to his mother, Ruth. She died after giving birth to his sister when John was just eight, and he was devastated by the loss. Brown had a rudimentary childhood education before attending preparatory school at age 16 in hopes of attending college. However, he was plagued by eye troubles that made reading difficult, and he eventually gave up his dream of pursuing an education. He returned home to Ohio.
A Struggling Family Man
In 1820, John married Dianthe Lusk, a 19-year-old from a family that was just as fervently religious as his own. Throughout their marriage, Dianthe struggled with mental illness, but John supported and cared for her in periods when she was unwell. John referred to Dianthe as a “positive influence” in his life, and the pair had seven children, though not all would live to see adulthood. Just like they had taken his mother, complications from childbirth would steal John’s wife. She died at age 31, shortly after giving birth to their seventh child.
After Dianthe’s death, John hired a housekeeper to help him maintain his home and care for his five surviving children. He was soon taken with his housekeeper’s sister, Mary Ann Day. Mary was just 17 when the pair married in 1833. Not only did Mary help John raise his children by Dianthe, but she also gave birth to 13 of her own. Of Brown’s 20 children, only eleven would see adulthood.
During his early adulthood, John Brown struggled with his health and finances. He suffered through periods of unknown illness and fever. Brown tried several occupations, opening a tannery, becoming a sheep farmer, working as a merchant, and speculating on land. None of his chosen professions netted much profit, and while in his 40s, he filed for bankruptcy. Despite his lack of funds, Brown invested in causes he believed in and spent his time becoming more involved in supporting them. Most of the groups and efforts he supported were related to the cause of abolition and bringing about a permanent end to slavery in America.
Dedicated to the Cause
Brown helped finance a number of anti-slavery publications, including David Walker’s Appeal, which was considered wildly radical for the time. He participated in the Underground Railroad and even gave land to escaped slaves. In 1851, he helped create the League of Gileadites, an organization dedicated to protecting fugitive slaves from those pursuing them. It seemed that as time went on, Brown’s fervor for the cause of abolition only increased. Brown’s family moved around to different locations that helped facilitate his work, including North Elba, New York, which was a community of Black freedmen.
Brown met and associated with a number of prominent abolitionists in his work, including Gerrit Smith, who was responsible for the establishment of North Elba. He also met former slave and famous abolitionist Frederick Douglass. The pair first met in 1847, and Douglass marveled at how Brown’s dedication to the cause was as if Brown’s “own soul had been pierced by the iron of slavery,” despite the fact that he was a white man.
In 1855, Brown became aware of an issue that was heating up on the national stage. The Kansas-Nebraska Act became law in 1854, which allowed new states that were courting admission to the union to decide the issue of slavery within their borders by vote. A popular vote in the state would determine its status as a “free” or “slave” state.
The issue was especially contentious in Kansas, where a series of events later known as “Bleeding Kansas” resulted in violent conflict caused by this decision-making. Brown felt compelled to join the abolitionist cause in Kansas. Along with five of his sons, he headed to Kansas territory.
He led and participated in a number of bloody attacks in the name of abolition, from retaliatory attacks to nighttime raids. These skirmishes resulted in deaths on both the proslavery and antislavery sides of the question. He took his guerilla style of warfare to Missouri, where his men killed an enslaver and freed 11 slaves.
Brown also spent time in New England, the home of the abolitionist movement, where he made the acquaintance of several prominent figures who took an interest in his activities. Though he was unafraid of violence and thus too radical for some within the movement, he had many supporters within the community, including Franklin Sanborn and Henry David Thoreau. With financial support from some of these friends, Brown began outlining a plan that he hoped would allow the cause to take another step closer to becoming reality.
Harpers Ferry
Brown set his plan into motion in July 1839. He, along with several supporters, leased a farm near Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia) using an assumed name. They spent their time studying the town, its people, and most of all, the workings of the local federal armory. Brown finalized his plan over the following months, and on October 16, Brown and his small army of supporters raided the armory, intending to seize weaponry and start a slave rebellion.
The plan did not achieve Brown’s goals but instead resulted in the deaths of 16, including ten of Brown’s men. Brown was arrested and imprisoned. His trial began on October 27, and the proceedings captured the attention of the nation. The trial lasted for five days, and at its conclusion, Brown was found guilty of murder, treason, and inciting a slave rebellion. He was sentenced to death. Brown, who was grievously injured during his surrender, was bedridden for much of the trial, but the statements he made during it impacted the nation as pre-war tensions grew. John Brown was hanged on December 2, 1859.
Martyr? Terrorist? Hero?
The statements that Brown made during his trial propelled him to fame, not only among those who were dedicated to the cause of abolition but also among the general public. He spoke eloquently of his motivations and pleaded antislavery ideas. Brown’s violent actions, especially those against the federal government, had lost him a great deal of support, even among fellow abolitionists, but his candid words in the courtroom brought former supporters back into the fold and convinced many that his ideals were worth fighting for.
While the slaveholding class still considered him a reckless terrorist, perhaps insane, Brown refuted any suggestions of an insanity defense and insisted he was in his right mind. To those of the antislavery faction, Brown was a hero, someone who was willing to stand up for his values, even at the cost of his own life. In some eyes, this made him a martyr, willing to die to propel his cause forward. Famous people like Henry David Thoreau wrote of Brown’s plight, calling him the most authentic American and abolitionist, as he “walked the walk” and was truly committed to his values. Centuries later, Brown is still a divisive figure, escaping any definitive categorization.
The Legacy of John Brown’s Work
America in John Brown’s day was rife with tension, particularly over the issue of slavery. Though Brown did not accomplish what he set out to do at Harpers Ferry, his actions helped further the deepening division that would soon turn into a complete split as the country fell into Civil War. Though Brown cannot be blamed for singlehandedly starting the war, his planned raid, along with the public coverage of his trial, furthered the country’s progression toward it.
A controversial figure even today, John Brown played an undeniable role in the development of America’s history. The questions that he forced the government and its citizens to consider disrupted the tradition of quiet discussion about controversial issues. Whether his actions were right or wrong, his life impacted the creation of modern America.
