Long before empires were cast and forged in bronze and iron, civilization was borne on the back of supercrops that made progress possible. Wheat and barley formed the basis of survival and the economy. Storable and divisible, these grains allowed for the existence of standing armies and complex bureaucracies.

The Agrarian Spark in the Fertile Crescent

For the vast majority of humanity’s existence, our species has been hunting and gathering. It was an evolutionary response to the necessity of survival. Around 12,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent, however, the dynamic began to shift. The reasons for this are a matter of debate, but what is certain is that wheat and barley played huge and pivotal roles in the transformation of tribes of nomadic hunter-gatherers into sedentary communities living in villages. 

Emmer and einkorn wheat, along with barley, formed a foundation for the Neolithic Revolution as humans began supplementing hunting with agriculture. 

Since these grains formed the basis of Neolithic economies, they became associated with wealth, thus driving the formation of hierarchical social structures. The success of agriculture also led to food surpluses, freeing up labor that was not directly related to survival. As such, agriculture made it possible for the creation of permanent jobs whereby people became brickmakers, smiths, weavers, merchants, and a host of other professions. This was the beginning of human civilization. 

Why Cereal Grains Built States When Root Crops Could Not

Political scientist and anthropologist James C. Scott states that grain was “visible, divisible, assessable, storable, transportable, and ‘rationable’.” It could thereby be taxed, whereas other crops were hidden or spoiled relatively quickly. Making people pay taxes in grain facilitated a shift away from other crops that may have been preferred to grain. Often it was not a choice for farmers, but an act of coercion enforced by the state. 

The long shelf life of barley and wheat meant that they could be traded and stored for future trade and consumption. Across the Fertile Crescent, from Egypt to Mesopotamia, barley and wheat were used for large-scale transactions and served as currency—a vital component to the development of human civilization. 

Granaries and temples largely controlled wealth through their storage and distribution of grain, and the surplus played a major part in fueling the construction of cities and megaprojects like pyramids and ziggurats.

Grain Storage and the Birth of Early Writing Systems

Writing was a direct result of the need to administer grain and other goods. 

Settlements grew into towns, and towns became great cities. With the massive increase in population, bureaucratic records were needed to keep track of all the transactions. Since grain formed the backbone of the economy, it is logical to conclude that it played a major part in the need to develop writing. Deliveries, distribution, and transactions of grain needed to be written down. 

In Mesopotamia at the end of the fourth millennium and into the 3rd millennium BC, simple impressions on clay tokens began evolving into a fully developed cuneiform writing system, while in Egypt the same dynamic was happening with hieroglyphics on papyrus. As human creativity took over, writing developed from the necessity of administration to an art, and the first prayers and stories were written down, making way for all the incredible literature that would follow. 

How Climate Shifts Threatened the Granaries of Empire

Hunter-gatherer societies moved with the herd and the seasons. They lived off the land and were able to adapt their lives to the flow of nature. Civilization faced a serious challenge in that sedentary lives and the reliance on monoculture created a fragile dynamic. 

The science of farming is a complex one, and early civilizations had to learn about soil salinization, proper irrigation, and pest control, while drought and crop failure could mean the difference between life and death for thousands of people. In fact, severe drought is thought to be the biggest contributing factor to the fall of the Akkadian Empire at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. 

Wheat and barley were the drivers of civilization, fueling massive population booms, providing surpluses that fueled technological progression and the formation of empires. Despite the droughts and the hardships that punctuated the timespan of human civilization, grains made it possible to recover and prosper, forming a foundation for societies to develop from ancient to modern times.

On October 30, 1961, in the far north of Russia, the largest man-made explosion in history was set off by the Soviet Union with its new nuclear weapon, the Tsar Bomba. It exploded with a yield more than 3,000 times that of the bomb that shook Hiroshima. It was originally designed to be even bigger.

The Terrifying Cold War Arms Race That Convinced Moscow to Go Big 

In 1961, the United States and the Soviet Union were embroiled in an economic, political, and military race for supremacy over much of the world. Following World War II, the communists who had taken over Russia were seeking to expand their power, and part of that expansion involved keeping the United States and its military at bay. To do so, the Soviet Union invested heavily in new nuclear weapons capability. Both countries had developed nuclear bombs which dwarfed the immense destructive capabilities that the United States had used against the Japanese at Hiroshima and Nagasaki.  Unfortunately for the Soviets, the United States had the capability to strike against Russia directly, but the Soviets were unable to strike against the continental United States.

By 1961, the Soviets were pushing hard in their nuclear weapons development, and had worked on a design for five years which could produce a detonation of 100 megatons— where the detonations over Japan did not even reach ONE megaton. “Kuzka’s Mother,” as the Soviets called it, was the biggest bomb ever built (the “Tsar Bomba” name did not appear until the 1990s).

Why Did the Soviets Scale Back the Tsar Bomba?

Andrei Sakharov, the nuclear physicist who designed the Tsar Bomba, believed the Soviets needed a nuclear deterrent against the United States. However, when he calculated the destructive potential of his design at 100 megatons, as well as the long-term radioactive potential due to the type of nuclear reaction the bomb produced, he modified the design to produce a 50-megaton explosion and a different, less radioactive type of nuclear explosion. The lower yield also protected the crew of the bomber dropping the bomb, as there was a high chance they would not survive a 100 megaton explosion.

The Blast That Shook Earth – What Happened When Tsar Bomba Detonated

The modified Tupolev Tu-95 bomber carrying the 30-ton bomb and the Tupolev Tu-16 observation aircraft took off from Olenya airbase at about 9:30 am on October 30, 1961.  At 11:32 am, the bomb was released and detonated over Sukhoy Nos, a cape of Severny Island north of the Arctic Circle. The detonation resulted in a fireball five miles wide and a flare visible as far as Alaska. The “mushroom cloud” reached 42 miles, above the stratosphere and into the mesosphere. The seismic wave circled the Earth three times. The resulting explosion also produced little to no nuclear fallout (which the 100 megaton yield would have produced with long-term implications), so little that the blast site was able to be safely visited only hours after the explosion. 

How the World’s Most Dangerous Bomb Accidentally Sparked Peace

The test of the Tsar Bomba frightened both sides in the Cold War, and resulted in the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963, which disallowed above-ground nuclear bomb testing.  Radioactive fallout had become an increasing concern, and the Castle Bravo test the United States conducted at Bikini Atoll in 1954 (a 15 megaton explosion with extensive radioactive fallout), combined with the Tsar Bomba test and other above-ground nuclear weapons tests, made nations realize that limits needed to be made.  

Andrei Sakharov, the principal designer of the Tsar Bomba, was a major agent in pushing for the end of nuclear proliferation and contributed heavily to the treaty.  Sakharov would go on to promote peace and oppose the Soviet government, suffering imprisonment and dissident status. For his efforts in promoting peace and human rights, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1974, and one of the European Union’s highest honors was named after him—the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought. The Tsar Bomba became the final impetus for the Cold War to begin its long thaw.

In the late 1700s, Britain faced a serious trade imbalance with China. Silk, porcelain, and tea from China were in high demand among people across all social classes in Britain. By 1800, for example, the British East India Company was importing millions of pounds of tea from China into Britain annually. China, on the other hand, was self-sufficient and considered Western goods to be quaint novelties. As a result, there was little demand for Western manufactured goods.

The Commercial Crisis That Led Britain to Smuggle Indian Opium

Wanting to solve these trade problems, Britain dispatched the Macartney Embassy in 1793 to broker better trade terms, but the Qianlong Emperor rejected every request. The failure of this mission meant that Britain had to continue to pay for Chinese goods using silver bullion. By the late 1700s, however, the outflow of silver from Britain to China was threatening to deplete British East India Company coffers. Britain quickly realized that it needed to find a trade commodity that China couldn’t resist.

British merchants finally found what they were looking for halfway across the world in British-occupied India. The British East India Company had created an effective monopoly on opium production in the Bengal and Bihar regions of India at that time. The opium was primarily used for recreational smoking and medicine.

Technically, the British East India Company did not transport opium directly to China. Company officials sold processed opium chests to foreign traders at public auctions in Calcutta. Ships owned by foreign private merchants then transported the chests of opium to Lintin Island, close to mainland China. There, Chinese brokers paid for the drug in silver before local smugglers used small, fast boats to transfer the chests into China. By the late 1830s, over 30,000 chests of opium were entering China every year.

Lin Zexu’s Opium Crackdown and the Clash Over Free Trade

On December 31, 1838, the Daoguang Emperor appointed Lin Zexu as an Imperial Commissioner to end the opium trade, as Lin was known for his firm moral stance on the issue. The most immediate danger at the time was a currency crisis caused by the massive drain of silver from the country. This happened because the value of silver rose sharply against copper. 

Since peasants were paid in copper but had to pay taxes in silver, their tax burden effectively doubled, causing a major economic crisis. The military was also weakened because many soldiers were addicted to the drug. The problem reached endemic levels in the government as well, and widespread addiction hampered effective administration and led to more corruption.

When Lin arrived in Canton that spring, he forced all foreign merchants to hand over their opium supplies. He then ordered that the opium be destroyed and dumped into the ocean. The destruction of over 2 million pounds of opium at Humen sparked outrage in London. Meanwhile, a vocal group of private British merchants pressured Parliament by arguing that China had violated international law and the rights of free trade. While Lin viewed the action as a matter of domestic law enforcement, the British Foreign Office agreed to defend the property rights of its citizens and the principle of free trade.

How British Naval Superiority Forced Open Chinese Ports in 1842

The Battle of Chuenpi took place on November 3, 1839, when HMS Volage and HMS Hyacinth fired upon a Chinese force of war junks near the entrance of the Pearl River estuary. The naval clash marked an escalation in tensions that led to the First Opium War. The vast gap in military technology between the British Navy and the Chinese defenses eventually forced China to sign the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing. Under the agreement, China would pay a substantial sum to compensate Britain for the destroyed opium and cover the costs of the conflict. The East Asian nation was also required to hand over control of Hong Kong Island to the British and open five strategic ports where foreign merchants could trade without restriction.

How Further Conflict Ushered in China’s Century of Humiliation

The 1843 Treaty of the Bogue established extraterritoriality and most-favored-nation status, but since the treaty ignored the opium problem, smuggling continued to flourish. Britain and France eventually launched the Second Opium War in 1856 while China was already struggling with the internal Taiping Rebellion. Allied forces soon captured Beijing in 1860 and burned down the Old Summer Palace.

The defeats compelled China to sign the Convention of Peking. Subsequent tariff agreements finally legalized the opium trade and granted foreigners the right to travel throughout the Chinese interior. 

While the main objective for Britain was to guarantee that its citizens could keep profiting from the Chinese market, the unequal treaties ushered in China’s “century of humiliation” and triggered a decline in Qing power that lasted until the end of imperial rule in 1912.

According to SIL International, there are over 7,000 languages spoken around the world. Most people have a single first language, and about 40% of people speak a second language fluently. This is more common in multicultural countries like Indonesia, where two-thirds of the population is bilingual, compared to about 20% in the United States. While some languages are clearly related, such as Spanish and Portuguese, other languages have completely different lexical and grammatical features. For example, English speakers often struggle with the tonal nature of Chinese and the unfamiliar written characters. How hard it is to learn a new language often depends on the languages you already know. What languages are considered the hardest for English speakers?

Understanding Language Families

Learning a language that is closely related to the learner’s first language is generally easier than learning an unrelated language. Therefore, for English speakers, many other European languages are easier to learn than, for example, Vietnamese, Nahuatl, or Navajo!

The closer a language is on the linguistic family tree to English, the easier it is for an English speaker to learn. English belongs to the Germanic group of languages, which also includes German, Dutch, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Afrikaans.

Germanic is part of the broader Indo-European family tree, and about 40% of the global population speaks Indo-European languages. Within this tree, Germanic languages are closely related to Romance languages, derived from Latin (spoken by the Romans), including French, Romanian, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. These languages will usually be easier for an English speaker to learn than a more distant language, such as Arabic.

Another major group of European languages is the Slavic group, which includes Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Bulgarian, Serbian, and Croatian.

Other European languages, such as Finnish, Hungarian, and Estonian, belong to the Uralic Language group and are even further removed from English. Finnish and Hungarian have even gained reputations as being notoriously difficult to learn.

Foreign Service Institute Ranking

The Foreign Service Institute (FSI) is the United States’ primary training institution for members of the US foreign service community. As such, the FSI is responsible for helping professionals and other diplomats learn languages to promote US foreign policy. The FSI categorizes languages based on how easy they are to learn from an English perspective. Languages are ranked from Category I (easiest) to Category V (hardest). Category I includes languages that require 24-30 weeks (600-750 hours) to learn. Several Germanic and Romance languages fall into this category, and include Norwegian, Afrikaans, French, and Spanish.

Although German is closely related to English, it has significant complexities that differentiate it from English and make it a more difficult language to learn than Category I languages. It is a Category II language, and learners can expect to master the language only after 30 weeks (750 hours) of intense study. Moving into language groups unrelated to English, Malaysian, Indonesian, and Swahili are category III languages requiring 36 weeks (900 hours) of study.

Category IV Languages require at least 44 weeks (1100 hours) of study, and include Bulgarian, Hindi, Russian, Greek, Czech, Thai, Finnish, Estonian, Tagalog, Xhosa, and Zulu, among many others.

Category V: The Hardest Languages to Learn (From an English Perspective!)

Reaching Category V and requiring 88 weeks (2200 hours) to learn, there are a handful of languages that require intense study to master. These languages are Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese Chinese, Arabic, Korean, and Japanese. Of these languages, Japanese, with its differing syntax, three different writing systems, and complicated hierarchy of etiquette, is considered the most difficult.

Remembered as one of early Hollywood’s boldest stars, Marlene Dietrich transformed her fame into a weapon against Nazi Germany. Despite Hitler’s attempts to lure her home as the face of Nazi cinema, Dietrich became an American citizen and toured the United States to sell war bonds. She donated her Hollywood paychecks to aid Jewish refugees and recorded propaganda music to weaken German morale. Her fight even reached the front lines, where she braved harsh conditions to perform for thousands of Allied troops from North Africa to England.

Rising From Berlin Cabarets to Hollywood Stardom

Born in 1901 in Berlin, Germany, Dietrich’s upbringing was marked by the violence of the First World War. Like many others, she turned towards the vibrant and expressive post-war art scene in Berlin. She quickly captivated audiences as a talented cabaret singer, actress, and dancer. Her scandalous lifestyle as a bisexual mixed with her alluring charm and more masculine style made her a sensation in the Weimar Republic. After the success of The Blue Angel (1930), Dietrich captured the attention of Paramount Pictures and Hollywood. Within a few years, she was one of the highest-paid and most acclaimed actresses in the world.

Refusing Hitler and the Demands of Nazi Cinema

The Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda desperately wanted Dietrich to return to Germany and become the glamorous face of Nazi propaganda and fascist culture. High-ranking Nazi officials like Joachim von Ribbentrop offered her lucrative deals to become Germany’s biggest movie star. Adolf Hitler was especially eager for Dietrich’s support. He was an ardent fan of her films and allegedly wanted her to become his mistress. Instead, Dietrich rejected and condemned the Third Reich publicly. She even called Hitler an idiot on a British radio broadcast. In response, the Nazi regime labeled her a traitor and banned all of her films and songs. 

Renouncing German Citizenship to Fund Refugee Escapes

Dietrich undermined the Nazis before World War II. In 1937, she renounced her German citizenship and created a fund with filmmaker Billy Wilder to help Jewish and other persecuted artists escape Nazi Germany. She donated her salary from the film Knight Without Armor (1937) to fund their evacuations, emigration costs, and new lives abroad.

After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Dietrich was one of the first celebrities to volunteer in the Allied war effort. She performed across the US in war bond tours. By 1943, she had sold more war bonds than any other star on tour. 

Broadcasting OSS Radio Propaganda to Demoralize Axis Soldiers

The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) also recruited Dietrich to produce propaganda music. The precursor to the CIA, the OSS developed a plot to mix popular songs with anti-Nazi messages and speeches called the Muzak Project. Dietrich agreed to record famous songs in German that resonated with Axis troops for these broadcasts. She re-recorded songs like “Lili Marleen” and other beloved pieces like “Mean to Me” and “Time on My Hands.” The programs were broadcast into occupied territories to demoralize the German and Italian soldiers and make them question their loyalty to the Axis powers.

Risking Death on the Front Lines During Allied USO Tours

From 1944 to 1945, Dietrich became one of the most involved, resolute, and risky performers on the USO tours. Performing alongside Bing Crosby and the Andrews Sisters, she sang for hundreds of thousands of soldiers to boost morale from North Africa to the front lines in France. Even military commanders like General George Patton were taken aback by how close to the front she was willing to go despite being a marked traitor in Germany.

Granted an honorary colonel title, Dietrich charmed military personnel with her cheeky comedy performances, fabulous outfits, and serenades. Other performers joked, “she was always trying to get us killed,” as she remained near the front regardless of nearby shelling, frostbite, or influenza. She danced on makeshift stages with no electricity, wore military boots, slept in tents, ate alongside the soldiers, attended their training, and often visited the wounded. 

In 1947, US President Harry Truman awarded Dietrich the Medal of Freedom for her wartime contributions. She stated that it was her proudest achievement and the most important thing she had ever done.

When Jesus multiplied the fishes and the loaves, he was not just doing another miracle. Christ’s and the disciples’ concern about the crowd’s nutrition highlights the socio-economic context he found himself in, revealing a brutal class divide in Roman Judea. This miracle took on a deeper meaning as the humble lunch of a poor boy brought relief from not only their spiritual, but also their physical hunger.

The Poverty and Hopeful Expectations of First Century Palestine

In the parables of Jesus, he repeatedly opted for metaphors and wording that had to do with nature and farming. That was because the people he was teaching all understood one language: that of agriculture.

Zooming out beyond a Biblical timeline into secular history, these were the days following Alexander the Great. Rome was in power, enforcing strict taxation laws on Jews and other displaced peoples living in the region. Many families were living a hand-to-mouth existence and were forced to give the best of the land (wheat, olive oil, wine) to the ruling empire.

The Jews cried out to their God to send the promised one who would save them from the oppression and suffering they faced, just like they were saved from slavery in Egypt about 1500 years prior. What they prayed for was a mighty warrior king on a stallion, but they got a humble rabbi riding a donkey instead. 

Wheat for Elites and Barley for Beasts

While wheat was seen as a luxury grain, because of its softness and light color, coarse and heavy barley was all that remained for the poor. 

“As a foodstuff it [barley] is of somewhat doubtful merit, suited to irrational animals and men in unhappy circumstances.”
– Philo, a Hellenistic Jew and philosopher

In ancient Jewish literature (like what we know as the Old Testament), barley was described as the food of beasts.

• Prophetic imagery: The prophet Elisha compares ‘the finest flour’ directly with barley in 2 Kings 7.
• Book of Hosea: A man has to buy back his wife who turned against him and chose a life of prostitution. In the end, the price Hosea pays to get her back is 15 shekels of silver and some barley (Hosea 3:2). 

“Barley bread, which was the ancient foodstuff of the common people, has now been relegated to the use of beasts.”
– Pliny the Elder

How Roman Taxation & Temple Offerings Pushed Local Farmers to the Brink

The severe tax burden on Judean peasants surfaced often in the life and teachings of Jesus: “Is it right for us to pay taxes to Caesar or not?” (Luke 20:22). 

Rome imposed land tax (10-20%), poll tax (one annual payment per person), and further indirect tolls. Yet the remainder of their money had to be given to the Temple. The heavy burden of the law of Moses did much more than state that a person must tithe 10% to the “church.”  They also had to bring countless other offerings and gifts in order to obtain righteousness before God. 

All of this is before wicked religious leaders, like money-loving Pharisees, who twisted the law to get a second 10%, the first fruits of the harvest, and even more. The taxation and offerings took more than 40% of a family’s income, forcing farmers to sell their best crops and subsist on inferior grains like barley.

Social Standing Measured by the Daily Loaf

What a person ate in that time and day said a lot. This is part of the reason why the New Testament authors make such a big deal of Jesus dining with sinners. Consider, for example, when Jesus goes to the house of Zaccheus the tax collector for a meal. 

Instead of suffering with the crowds, it seemed to them that Jesus often accepted invitations (and even invited himself) to dine with the wealthy. Even one of his twelve disciples, Matthew, was a tax collector before joining Jesus’ company!

In a society where social standing was measured by the daily loaf, Jesus’ actions infuriated the crowds. Christ’s ability to cross over socio-economic barriers was a major reason why the people eventually turned on him and killed him.

In Roman Judea, food security and malnutrition were a reality in the first century, echoed in the believer’s prayer: “Give us today our daily bread”.

Recontextualizing the Dietary Reality of the Ancient Poor

When this reality is applied to the miracle where Jesus used five barley loaves and two fish to feed thousands, the event takes on new meaning. The disciples’ concern about the hungry crowd in the middle of nowhere makes it clear that there was truly no food. Interestingly, this crowd resembles the hungry Israelites in the wilderness after the Exodus before God rained down manna on them for sustenance.

The boy’s lunch of five barley loaves indicates the extreme poverty of the crowd. When Jesus took the boy’s bread, it was not the food of the rich, but of the poor. Yet afterward, there were even leftovers. He had turned their scarcity into abundance. 

This socio-economic perspective of a well-known miracle exemplifies the value of using social history to understand ancient texts like the Bible— the five barley loaves reveal the harsh truth about what life was like in Roman Judea.

During the era of the “Wild West” in the United States, as people expanded westward in search of opportunities and new life, many communities had to do the best they could with medical care. The results ranged from the hilariously awful to profound discoveries and methods.

Fake Degrees and Frontier Vets Were Your Only Hope

The period known as the Wild West occurred in the United States between the end of the Civil War and the “closing” of the American frontier around 1865 to 1895. This 30-year period saw rapid expansion as Americans traveled west to seek their fortunes. Such expansion limited the availability of medical care of any kind, much less access to medical doctors.  

The number of professionals was lacking, and only about 25% of people calling themselves “doctors” actually had a medical degree of some sort. What resulted was an amalgamation of different types of medical theories, most with untested practices that were more akin to folk medicine or charlatanism. Many doctors also served as veterinarians, and vice versa. Children were often born with the assistance of midwives, if available, and childbirth tended to be the domain of women rather than doctors.  

The Silent Outbreaks That Killed Settlers Faster Than Bullets

As vaccination and high sanitation standards were not yet common, diseases that are now rare often made their way through the West like wildfire, such as the cholera epidemic that spread throughout the California Gold Rush in 1849. This was the result of poor sanitation and crowded living conditions, which were also catalysts for other diseases such as diphtheria and dysentery.

Cholera was also responsible for a high number of deaths in Indian tribes, particularly among the Pawnee and Cheyenne. Tuberculosis, or “consumption,” was also a major factor in the Old West, and is known to have afflicted famous gunfighters such as Doc Holliday and a member of the Texas Rangers, Captain Leander McNelly.

How Opium Elixirs and the Rockefellers Created Snake Oil

“Snake oil” is the pejorative given to the “patent medicine” commonly sold throughout the Old West from traveling “medicine shows.”  They would draw a crowd with various entertainers, and a “professor” or “doctor” would try to sell the crowd bottles of some sort of elixir with outlandish claims of its curative effects. People would often be planted in the crowd claiming to have been cured by the medicine, which was often alcohol combined with a narcotic of some sort (often opium) and other spices or herbs.

The term “snake oil” originated from a real substance introduced by Chinese railway workers who came to America to work on the transcontinental railroad. They would extract the oil from the fat sack of a Chinese water snake, and it appears to have been a genuine remedy for inflammation. William D Rockefeller Sr, father of Standard Oil founder John D. Rockefeller, was one of the traveling salesmen who took the idea of snake oil and traveled around the West, selling it under the name “Dr. William Levingston.”  Some of the money he earned through his various businesses would help his son, John, start what would become the vast Standard Oil business empire.

Unwashed Hands Killed More Settlers Than Frontier Outlaws

The biggest problem that led to the most deaths in the Old West was the lack of cleanliness at every level. Germ theory was in its infancy, having only been formulated by 1878. Sanitation of water supplies was negligible, resulting particularly in the spread of cholera. Washing before surgery was rarely done, and sanitizing instruments was rare. However, the Old West saw the beginnings of some modern surgery practices.  

Dr. George Goodfellow was a genuine doctor who moved west around 1876 to practice medicine, and wound up involved (or nearly so) with many major characters of the Old West.  He almost joined General Custer’s 7th Cavalry, missing the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Goodfellow married Katherine Colt, a relative of Samuel Colt, inventor of the Colt revolver. He also treated two of the Earp Brothers following the Gunfight at the OK Corral in 1881 after establishing a practice in Tombstone, Arizona.

Because of his proximity to some of the wildest situations in the Old West, Dr. Goodfellow became renowned for his effective treatment of gunshot wounds—particularly the sterilization methods he used in surgery. He became renowned for several firsts in surgery, all successful due to his skill and his sterilization techniques.

Johannes Kepler didn’t want to destroy astrology; in fact, he loved it. He was a practicing court astrologer and imperial mathematician, so he relied on casting horoscopes for his career. He hated the way street fortune tellers told horoscopes without any mathematics to back up their “predictions.” He wanted to ground astrology in cold, hard science, but as he researched his hypothesis, he discovered the laws of planetary motion. He proved that the stars didn’t influence people’s fates, but rather that they moved in imperfect ellipses by gravity. He killed his beloved astrology.

Johannes Kepler and the Renaissance Obsession With the Stars

Johannes Kepler was an important astrologer for royalty and prominent figures, including Emperor Rudolph II and General Albrecht von Wallenstein. Astrology was his career, but along with casting horoscopes, he also followed the movement of the stars with math called astronomy. 

In his day, these two scientific practices were two halves of the same coin; one could not exist without the other. However, Kepler was tired of the charlatans who predicted futures on the street. He held a deep belief that God created a geometric universe, so he set out to prove that the future could be found in the stars and that the universe was geometric perfection. 

Why Kepler Rejected the Traditional Zodiac Houses

The common street fortune-mongers relied on the 12 houses of the Zodiac to divine fortunes. Kepler hated the 12 houses and thought they were man-made garbage. They didn’t have any physical reality to prove that they truly influenced life. As an educated man, Kepler turned to mathematics, in this case geometry, to prove that the stars did indeed influence humanity, but not based on the Zodiac. Instead, these divine aspects came from the planets that created physical, musical harmonies in the human soul.  This was where the true horoscopes lay, but he had to find the geometry to prove it.

How Elliptical Orbits Ruined Astrological Mathematics

Kepler loved his circular orbits, but when he studied the orbit of Mars, he discovered that it moved in an elliptical fashion. What was moving the Red Planet was the sun! It astounded Kepler, and he had to break with the popular Aristotelian theory about spheres. Astrology relied on Aristotle’s theory that the universe remained an unchanging constant, but Kepler’s telescopic observations proved otherwise. Because astrology remained constant, the calculations remained fluid and easy to make. Kepler, however, introduced calculations about elliptical orbits and variable speeds that threw these completely off. 

The Rudolphine Tables and the Death of a Symbolic Cosmos

What Kepler did was use his own observations with Tycho Brahe along with his new mathematical concepts to create the Rudolphine Tables. This publication predicted the planetary positions extremely accurately. Astrologers were keen to implement the new mathematical formulas into their charts, but it proved that their “science” was wrong. Because the universe could be explained with hard facts, there wasn’t any room for spiritual interpretations. This forced scholars and some charlatans (although they still existed) to accept that the universe was predictable and could be explained with the new information Kepler printed.

The Unintended Legacy of a Mystical Mathematician

What happened afterward was a huge division that led to a divorce between astrology and astronomy. The scientific community backed off from astrology and left it to the street charlatans who could still persuade uneducated rubes that the stars and planets controlled their fates. Meanwhile, Kepler has become acknowledged as the father of modern astronomy as well as one of the founders of modern physics. He bridged the gap between the two disciplines, proving that his hypothesis about a grand, orderly universe was in fact wrong. Instead of trying to make the science fit his facts, he adapted, and the field of astronomy has expanded like the Doppler effect. Astrology, however, has become akin to tarot cards and using crystals. It’s an amusement but nothing near true science.

When we think of mythology, we are often talking about gods, monsters, dragons, and super-powered heroes. Most mythology worldwide predates Christianity, and while Christianity contains fantastical elements, much of it has been documented within such a short timeframe after the actual events that, at minimum, the mythological element is removed.

Mythology tends to develop through various stories that were rooted in some facts, and often those facts are not completely known, so people created stories to fill in the gaps (or to sell books). For Christianity, much of the development happened in the late medieval era, where we see post-Biblical stories arise regarding Christian heroes and the challenges they faced.

How Did Centuries of Medieval Writers Construct the Legend of King Arthur?

Likely the most prominent figure of Christian mythology is that of King Arthur. The development of his story is long and draws on many early medieval stories and concepts. Even Joseph of Arimathea, in whose tomb Jesus Christ was laid, plays a part. King Arthur’s myth is inseparable from another prominent Christian myth, that of the Holy Grail. King Arthur is likely an amalgamation of various historical figures who lived beginning around 500 AD after the Anglo-Saxon invasion of England. 

When the Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 1100s wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, Merlin, Guinevere, Mordred, and Avalon entered the story. The Holy Grail and several other knights entered around that time from France. By 1485, Sir Thomas Malory, in his Le Morte D’Arthur, had combined all the elements of the classic Arthurian myth.

How Did Biblical Serpent Symbolism Evolve Into the Myth of St George?

The story of a hero slaying a great beast is common throughout the mythology of every culture. Hercules and Gilgamesh are among the examples we have in the West, but the one most closely aligned with Christianity is St George and the Dragon. The tale in its full form arises in Jacobus de Voragine’s Golden Legend, a chronicle of mostly fantastical lives of saints. The myth of St George may have come from a similar tale of St Theodore Tiron, who was a soldier-turned-saint who lived in the 300s AD.  

Serpent images were common in Christian iconography as a representative of Satan (from the Garden of Eden in Genesis). The snake images gradually turned into dragons, and by the 900s it was Theodore slaying a dragon, sometimes alongside George. St George would replace Theodore in a more developed myth by the time de Voragine wrote the Golden Legend.

How Christian Faith Transformed a Pagan Epic

One of the traits of Christian myth is that it tended to replace pagan ideas and images within stories with Christian ones. Such replacement is probably most prominent in the Beowulf story.

Beowulf comes along at a strange time historically. Two cultures were clashing in the 800s around when Beowulf was written—pagan northern Europe and Roman Catholic southern Europe. 

The story combines Biblical elements, such as Grendel being a descendant of Cain, and the aid of God in Beowulf’s success, with what may have been historical Scandinavian figures such as Hrothgar, Halfdan, and Halga from the 500s AD. What developed was a rich tale of good versus evil, courage, and death. The story does not appear to have a specific literary ancestor, and almost disappeared, as only a single copy from around 1000 AD survived.

Medieval Chroniclers Recorded and Exaggerated Local Legends

In addition to King Arthur and the Holy Grail, St George, and Beowulf, medieval writers often collected and exaggerated local stories. Sometimes the stories were adapted from pagan tales, others from strange miracles supposedly performed by some saints. What resulted was an often questionable historical record as to those figures. However, the usefulness of the stories allows us to see into the past regarding the cultures and people of those times, which gave rise to the stories of the fictional heroes we have today.

Operation Steinbock was a bombing campaign conducted by the Luftwaffe (German air force) from January 1944 to May 1944. The operation was a result of Hitler’s personal orders for the Luftwaffe to attack Great Britain, responding to the joint sustained Allied bombing campaign against Germany. By 1943, the Luftwaffe no longer ruled Europe’s skies. Weakened but not broken, it fought to keep heavy Allied bombers from Germany.

How and Why Hitler Launched Germany’s Final Blitz on London

Hitler ordered this Operation in retaliation for the Allied bombing raids and to prove that Germany could strike back. He also wanted to boost civilian morale on the home front. Since late 1942, the growing Allied raids hit German cities day and night, flattening whole cities.

Hitler ordered Operation Steinbock to go ahead in late 1943, furious at the damage Allied bombers were causing in Germany. However, assembling the bombers took time to ensure a high serviceability rate. By early 1944, bombers pulled from different theaters stood ready. The first raid of Operation Steinbock occurred on the night of January 21-22, 1944, when 229 bombers attacked London. The raids continued through May 1944 with varying degrees of success. London was not always the primary target, but it was considered the most important.

Commanded by the mercurial Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, the Luftwaffe carried out the retaliatory raids. Several Luftwaffe bomber wings, called Kampfgeschwaders, assembled at French bases nearer to England. These bombers represented the majority of the Luftwaffe’s remaining waning bomber strength. 

Generalleutnant Josef Kammhuber commanded Operation Steinbock. He led the Luftwaffe’s night fighters in his last command, trying different strategies to stop the Allied bombers. His mission required him to find ways to penetrate the very tough British air defenses.

How Operation Steinbock Earned the Nickname the “Baby Blitz”

This English-coined nickname referred to the Blitz of 1940-1941 on London. The original Blitz was much larger and more ferocious as the Luftwaffe made a maximum effort to gain aerial supremacy. This required condition would mean the Wehrmacht could invade England in “Operation Sealion” and knock Great Britain out of the war. The “Baby Blitz” never matched the sheer destruction of the original Blitz.

Prime British Targets of the 1944 German Air Raids

For several reasons, the Luftwaffe targeted Greater London as the main focus of the retaliation. First, London possessed a symbolic value as Britain’s capital. The Germans hoped to demoralize the island nation’s population and sought to inflict the same economic and area damage the Allies had caused on Germany. London represented a strategic target as a central industrial and transportation hub. Other cities like Bristol, Sandwich, and Hull also were bombed. These cities were industrial or central hubs, and the Luftwaffe sought to enhance the operation’s impact.

The Luftwaffe Aircraft Deployed for Operation Steinbock

The Luftwaffe gathered at least six Kampfgeschwaders from Germany and different theaters. By late 1943, their strength numbered almost 500 planes. Most were twin-engine types, including the Junkers Ju-88 and 188s, Dornier Do-217s, Messerschmitt Me-410s, and single-engine Fw-190s. The Germans also used the He-177, a “twin engine” heavy bomber with joined engines driving one propeller. While an innovative design, the problem-plagued bomber surprisingly had a lower loss rate than the other types. 

As Operation Steinbock continued, German losses grew heavier. The 1944 Luftwaffe was not the deadly war machine of 1941. By the end of the operation in May 1944, the Luftwaffe had lost 329 planes or 70% of its operational strength. 

How Operation Steinbock Crippled the Luftwaffe 

Operation Steinbock’s losses crippled the Luftwaffe bomber wing. Many irreplaceable crew members were lost, too. Even poorly-trained crewmen were a desperately-needed resource. The drain on other theaters, like the Eastern Front, left those theaters with fewer resources. As more bombers were shot down, fewer were available to fight during Operation Overlord. After Operation Steinbock, no more large-scale bomber campaigns took place. Nazi Germany switched to V1 and V2 Wunderwaffe attacks.

Operation Steinbock failed for several reasons. British defenses had improved immensely by 1944 with innovations like radar-guided anti-aircraft guns, which exacted a substantial toll on enemy air power. Despite the number of raids, the strategic impact was minimal. By March, bomber squadrons had been transferred or were only focused on attacking D-Day preparations.