While most people will say their faith is not based on or dependent on facts, there is certainly value in determining the historical claims and eyewitness accounts surrounding the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Focusing on the resurrection is not just a theological concept, but a piece of mysterious and intriguing history. Most Easter celebrations and Bible-believing Christians focus on the ascension of Christ, forgetting the forty days that came between the resurrection and his ultimate ascension to heaven.

The Roman Guard and the Witness of the Enemy

The Bible is full of humor and irony. Jesus Christ himself often “cracked a joke.” One such example is found in considering who was present at the tomb where Jesus was resurrected.

The tomb was guarded by Roman soldiers (“custodia”) tasked with preventing the theft of the body. Why? Because Jesus predicted his resurrection many times (John 2:19), and if someone could steal his body, they’d prove his message was true.

Yet before anybody had the chance to attempt such a theft, an angel came down with a violent earthquake: “going to the tomb, (he) rolled back the stone and sat on it. His appearance was like lightning, and his clothes were white as snow. The guards were so afraid of him that they shook and became like dead men.” (Matthew 28:2-4)

The guards, the enemies of Christ, shared what they witnessed with their leaders, and they were bribed to keep quiet. But the guards were not the only ones who saw the empty tomb.

Mary Magdalene and the Scandal of Female Testimony

Jesus was (in)famous for putting outcasts central in his ministry. Sinners, widows, children, and women were often at the receiving end of his mercy. It is fascinating that all four Gospels place women at the tomb first, despite the 1st-century Jewish legal reality where a woman’s testimony was often inadmissible in court.

In an eyewitness account, the “Criterion of Embarrassment” assesses how awkward, seemingly out-of-place details are more likely to be true. Critics and scholars of the Bible have surmised that if the story were a fabrication, women would never have been the primary witnesses.

“So the women hurried away from the tomb, afraid yet filled with joy, and ran to tell his disciples. Suddenly Jesus met them. “Greetings,” he said. They came to him, clasped his feet and worshiped him.” – Matthew 28:8-9

Peter and the Inner Circle

Earlier, when Jesus was betrayed by his disciple, Judas Iscariot, and arrested in the olive grove, all of his disciples deserted him. They went into hiding at this point, denying they knew him, and watching from afar as he was crucified.

Peter famously denied Jesus three times before the rooster crowed for the morning, just as Jesus predicted he would.

Upon resurrecting from the dead, Jesus is not upset with them, though. He appears to the Twelve on numerous occasions, showing them the marks in his hands and feet, and even allowing those who doubted— like Thomas— to touch his body.

Now that these men saw their rabbi in the flesh, a major psychological shift is evident. They go from hiding in fear to public proclamation, witnessing sincerely that he rose from the dead.

The Road to Emmaus and the Mystery of the Two Travelers

Yet Jesus did not only show himself to the famous Apostles. He also appeared to ordinary followers whose names were preserved for historical verification.

On the Emmaus Road, Cleopas and his companion were walking and discussing everything that had happened in the days that had passed. A man joined them and talked with them about how all these events relate to the Scriptures they know so well; how Jesus Christ fulfilled the law and the words of the prophets and defeated death.

They invited him to dinner, and it was only when he broke the bread that they suddenly recognized him as the Christ; then he disappeared from their midst before they could do anything more.

Sharing this sort of encounter with others was not only embarrassing but also dangerous.

The Five Hundred and the Power of Mass Testimony

These appearances are all between one and a maximum of 12 people seeing the risen Jesus. Yet there’s a very interesting verse found in 1 Corinthians 15:6:

“…he appeared to more than five hundred of the brothers and sisters at the same time, most of whom are still living, though some have fallen asleep.”

This verse has a ‘public’ nature. When Paul wrote it, many of these five hundred were still alive. He was effectively challenging his readers to go and interview them.

So many of those who believed in Jesus saw him after his resurrection.

The Witness of the Skeptic: James, the Brother of Jesus

Of all the people who might have found it challenging to believe that Jesus was the promised Messiah, it was probably hardest for his siblings. Imagine your brother claiming that he is the chosen one— Joseph in the Old Testament is evidence of how that usually goes, and he was sold into slavery by his brothers!

Yet, after Jesus rose from the dead, he also appeared to his brother, James (1 Cor 15). The conversion of James into a leader of the Jerusalem Church is one of the strongest “hostile witness” arguments. He even wrote the Book of James, which is now included in the Bible.

The Empty Tomb in the History of Art

Suppose you are an artist inspired to try to depict the resurrection of Jesus— it’s surely not an easy task. One minor detail of the resurrection that has received a lot of attention in art is a phrase the resurrected Christ says to Mary Magdalene: “Noli Me Tangere” (Touch Me Not).

Despite all that has been said in this article, this must be clear: The rising of Jesus was mostly “unseen.” Nobody saw the moment the corpse drew a breath… This unseen nature of the resurrection is especially evident in art.

During the Renaissance, the scenes are dramatic and dominated by light, while the Byzantine period focuses on the eerily quiet empty tomb.

Scholars and skeptics alike have been surprised by the diverse nature of the witnesses— men, women, soldiers, skeptics, and crowds. All seem to tell the same story.

The strength of the resurrection story historically relies on the “embarrassment” of its witnesses and their willingness to die for their testimony. The soldiers were bribed to keep quiet (Matthew 28), and the women were suspected of speaking nonsense (Luke 24:11). Many of those who claimed to have seen the risen Christ died a martyr’s death soon thereafter.

“After his suffering, he presented himself to them and gave many convincing proofs that he was alive. He appeared to them over a period of forty days and spoke about the kingdom of God.” – Acts 1:3

We often view controversy and internal strife as a sign of weakness, but conflict can also make us look inward to more firmly define our beliefs. Such was the case with early Christianity, and it was one of the reasons the New Testament was written.

What Were the Earliest Christian Theological Controversies During the Biblical period?

In the first century, controversies among Christians were behind why much of the New Testament was written, and the reason behind the first recorded church council in the book of Acts. The Apostle Paul addresses various controversies in new churches in several of his epistles, particularly the influence of Judaism among believers and the growing effects of what became known as Gnosticism.

In Acts 15, Paul and Barnabas come into conflict with Jewish believers who believed that circumcision was necessary for Gentiles (non-Jews) to come into the new faith. At its conclusion, James announced:

“19 Therefore my judgment is that we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God, 20 but should write to them to abstain from the things polluted by idols, and from sexual immorality, and from what has been strangled, and from blood.” —Acts 15:19-20

Paul, Barnabas, and others were then sent out to deliver the judgment to the new churches that were springing up, many of which were in Jewish synagogues.

The Rise of Gnosticism

Gnosticism is a general description of beliefs that arose around the same time as Christianity (if not before), heavily influenced by Greek philosophy. Primarily, it is the thought that the physical world is inherently evil. When applied to Christianity, it takes on the belief that Jesus Christ, the Son of God and God incarnate, did not come in a physical form, because the physical world is evil.  

The Apostle Paul confronted proto-Gnosticism in several books, affirming that the physical world was not evil and that Jesus Christ came in the flesh:

I Tim 3:16 “Great indeed, we confess, is the mystery of godliness: He was manifested in the flesh, vindicated by the Spirit, seen by angels, proclaimed among the nations, believed on in the world, taken up in glory.”

While various groups in early Christianity, following the New Testament period, attempted to use some of Paul’s writings to prove their point, they were often either misquoted or out of context

What Controversies Followed the Biblical Period?

After the New Testament was completed, various controversies arose regarding the meaning behind what many apostles wrote. Various forms of Gnosticism also came into more prominence following the New Testament period. Valentinianism and Marcionism were among the most prominent and well-defined forms of Christian Gnosticism, which church fathers such as Irenaeus wrote against.

Many of the “lost gospels” often promoted by conspiracy theorists come from the period following the New Testament. Few, if any, were written during the lifetime of any of the Apostles, and many directly contradict New Testament writings. The Gnostic writings often oppose the idea that Jesus Christ came in physical form, and reject his humanity.

How Did the Church Resolve the Controversies?

Many of the writings of early church fathers were against Gnosticism. Irenaeus wrote Against Heresies opposing Valentinian around 180 AD. He joined Justin Martyr and Tertullian in opposing Marcionism in the second century as well. Church leadership was effective in refuting the Gnostic heresies and removing much of its influence in the early church.

The writings opposing Gnosticism helped Christianity cement the concept that Jesus Christ was both human and divine. By the end of the second century, most of the Gnostic ideas had lost their serious influence within Christianity, and many of the Gnostic works were destroyed or hidden. 

Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1726) is considered by many to be the greatest mind of the Scientific Revolution. In his private notes, Newton wrote mathematically what he thought the end times of the world order, or apostate Church, as it existed at the time, would look like. Instead of studying astronomic data to calculate this, he spent a lot of time on biblical scripture and alchemy in an attempt to work out when the corrupt church would fall, pointing to the calendar year 2060. 

The Hidden Archives and Decades of Study

The idea that Isaac Newton, a devout rationalist and student of empirical science, believed he could calculate this future event seems strange at first glance. And that’s why Newton never published these findings during his lifetime. He kept them hidden because he feared being ridiculed or losing his job. His calculations first came to light when a collection of private papers was sold at an auction in 1936. A British economist named John Maynard Keynes, in turn, bought them from dealers who had purchased them at the event. The papers are now digitized and archived at King’s College, Cambridge, and the National Library of Israel, among other institutions. 

Newton is believed to have spent decades studying and analyzing everything from alchemy recipes to the Book of Revelation, in an attempt to also unlock when Jesus would return to Earth. He became completely absorbed in secretly calculating the fall of the corrupt church. 

The papers were initially discovered in a portion of the archives that belonged to Newton’s family, before eventually being donated to various institutions. They represented the life’s work of a man who believed every part of the universe operated under a divine set of instructions, and that somewhere within the Bible was a formula for figuring out when the corrupt powers would end. Newton searched the Bible for these prophetic clues throughout his life, with the same intensity he used to calculate the effects of gravity.

The Mathematics of the Apocalypse

One of the timestamps which Newton took from the Book of Daniel was the cryptic phrase “time times and half a time.” The phrase refers to a period of suffering for the Jewish people. Newton believed it also pointed to a future time when the Christian church would be corrupted. Newton calculated this phrase to mean a period of 1260 days or roughly three and a half years. He used a popular method among 17th-century Bible scholars called the day-for-a-year principle. The principle assumed that one day in the text stood for one real year in history in prophecy.

He interpreted these 1260 days as 1260 literal years using the day-for-a-year principle. This way, he would arrive at his centuries-long deadline by setting the start date of this prophetic era to 800 AD, when both Charlemagne became Roman Emperor, and papal supremacy over world politics was solidified in Rome.

The Timeline of the Little Horn

Newton also chose 800 AD as the starting point because he believed that was the year that the Pope’s political power became corrupt. He believed that the corruption was the Little Horn described in the Bible. According to Newton, the year 800 marked the beginning of the Little Horn of the papacy, and he believed that key parts of Christianity had become corrupt because of political power ever since.

Adding 1260 years to 800 equaled 2060, the result of his calculation. Newton wrote down this calculation around the year 1705, which is confirmed by the original manuscript. He did not mean that he thought the world would suddenly cease to exist in a fiery explosion when he referred to the end of the corrupt age.

A Vision of Global Renewal

Newton believed that there would be a reset of worldly powers. He believed in a global removal of the corruption of the Catholic Church, a revelation of spiritual truths, and a return of Christ to usher in a new period of peace and prosperity. He believed that corrupt governments and false religious leaders would be removed and a new, peaceful 1000-year Kingdom of God would begin after the Battle of Armageddon. Newton stated that he knew the events were unlikely to begin before 2060. He saw no reason for them to begin sooner. He set 2060 as the earliest possible date. 2060 symbolized progress and renewal, not literal extinction.

Court astrologers served as prominent advisors, counseling sultans on auspicious periods for declaring war, issuing decrees, and even giving birth. Whether it was superstition or science, court astrologers supported five centuries of Ottoman rule under one dynastic family, a feat most European empires never accomplished.

Institutionalization of the Court Astrologers

Since the 9th century AD, celestial studies played a crucial role in Islamic faith traditions, scholarship, and navigation. Astrology was not viewed as esoteric fortune-telling but a “science of the stars.” Bayezid II formalized astrological practices into an institutionalized court position by the late 15th century. One müneccimbaşı, chief astrologer, was appointed by the sultan to lead a team of astrologers called munajjims.

The munajjims became world-renowned astronomers. Aspiring court astrologers studied at the medrese and underwent rigorous training in geometry, astronomy, instrumentation, theology, and law. For instance, the müneccimbaşı Taqi-al-Din produced some of the most sophisticated and accurate astronomical observatories and tools in the early-modern world.

Military Campaigns: Waging War and Laying Siege

Astrology was consulted for military campaigns to decide when to declare war. For instance, astrologers were a key influence in Mehmed II’s conquest of Constantinople. After a month of high casualties and little success, Mehmed’s advisors suggested abandoning the siege. 

Yet on May 22, 1453, a lunar eclipse shone a blood red moon over the city. Astrologers argued that the eclipse fulfilled a prophecy about the fall of the city. Embracing this interpretation, Mehmed II launched his final assault on May 29, 1453, and defeated the Eastern Roman Empire. Court astrologers remained a prominent part of military planning for the next 400 years. 

Imperial Politics: Decisions, Decrees, and Authority

Court astrologers were also involved in politics. They forecast when to appoint the grand vizier and issue imperial decrees. They also assessed the political risk of celestial events. Eclipses and comets were interpreted either as omens of triumph and success or periods of plague, natural disaster, invasions, or riots.

However, if a chief astrologer fell out of political favor, they found themselves arrested, exiled, or in extreme cases, executed. For example, Taqi ad-Din was shunned after misinterpreting a comet in 1577. While he saw the comet as a sign of a future conquest of Persia, a horrific plague instead maimed the empire. Political and religious leaders opposing Taqi ad-Din condemned the plague as divine punishment for his new observatory. In 1580, Murad III (r. 1574-1595) bombed the complex into rubble.

Dynastic Planning: Marriages, Births, and Accessions

Court astrologers were tasked with forecasting the upcoming year for the imperial family. Almanacs and calendars offered personal horoscopes and timing advice for members of the royal household. They advised on when to host imperial events, royal weddings, circumcision ceremonies for young princes, give birth, travel, and begin education. 

However, not all sultans heeded the advice of court astrologers. Some dismissed the practice on religious grounds, whereas others simply viewed it with skepticism. For example, Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) did not believe in astrological forecasting. Yet, he still permitted the work of astrologers as an ingrained custom of the imperial court.

Timekeeping: Court Calendars, Almanacs, and Call to Prayer

Timekeeping was another crucial role of court astrologers. The chief court astrologer oversaw and administered the muvakkithanes, the official timekeeping offices attached to mosques. He was also tasked with producing the annual takvim, or court calendar. This calendar merged Islamic dates with planetary calculations to schedule the most favorable dates for Ramadan, religious feast days, state ceremonies, fasting schedules, and horoscopes. 

The calendars were held in such high regard that they were presented to the sultan in a dedicated ceremony as part of the annual New Year Nevruz festivities. During the ceremony, the sultan would be handed the takvim by the chief astrologer, who, in return, received a gift from the sultan.

Around 6500-3500 BC, in an era known as the Chalcolithic, or Copper Age, huge advances were made that would shape the future of mankind. At this point, human society transitioned from using stone tools to copper ones and took its first steps on the journey to civilization.

When Humans First Started Using Copper

Copper usage began simply—by finding it on the ground. Around 6500 BC, Native Americans in the western Great Lakes region picked up copper nuggets from exposed copper veins and eventually began digging quarries. The Old Copper complex, as it is now known, is one of the easiest places in the world to obtain copper, and artifacts are so prolific that many residents of the area have a few in their homes. The Copper culture of the western Great Lakes mostly shaped the copper through cold working, without heating and melting the metal.

In Eastern Europe and the Middle East, extensive copper use began sometime after 6000 BC, though some evidence suggests it may have been worked as early as 8700 BC.

The Earliest Copper Deposits

The earliest copper deposits used were the North American Old Copper complex near the Great Lakes. In Europe, several examples of early copper mining exist. Rudna Glava in eastern Serbia dates to about 5000 BC, and 186 miles away is the Aibunar mine in Bulgaria, dating to about 4000 BC. Both of these mines, as well as others in the region, contributed to an early rise of some sort of civilization in the area that predates Sumeria in the Middle East. The islands of Crete and Cyprus also had easily obtainable copper, similar to that of the Great Lakes.

Why Was Copper Used by Early Man?

Early civilization use of copper before bronze and iron developed for several reasons. Copper is abundant and is a metal that is so pure that it needs little to no refining to filter out impurities (the copper found in the Great Lakes Copper Complex is as high as 99% pure). It was simple to mine and easy to work into shapes. It is also pretty once refined and shaped, and was easy to fashion into jewelry.

Humans eventually learned to work copper effectively, once they discovered that heating the metal enabled it to be shaped into larger, more durable forms. It could be used as tools and weapons— edged for shaping wood, for creating trade goods, and for waging war.

Copper and Other Metals

Hoard of bronze socketed axes from the Bronze Age found in modern Germany. This was the most common tool of the period, and also seems to have been used as a store of value. Source: Wikimedia Commons

As metallurgy developed, mixing copper with other metals, such as arsenic or tin, produced stronger alloys. Arsenical bronze—a copper alloy that contains arsenic—naturally occurs in an area of Anatolia, and its development led to the early Bronze Age in that region, helping to create a society that predated the Sumerians.

The End of the Copper Age

As the Neolithic Age gradually developed into the Copper Age, the Copper Age gradually shifted into the Bronze Age around 4000 BC as man learned more about fashioning metal into useful implements. While there were great Bronze Age civilizations and societies, no great Copper Age civilization emerged along the lines that would come to be, such as the Egyptians or Sumerians, though the roots of those civilizations would have their beginnings in the Copper Age.

Beneath Tokyo’s skyscrapers and Kyoto’s shrines rest millennia of history. For decades, one of the biggest questions in East Asian history was: “Who were the first people to live in Japan?”

DNA testing and dating have shown that the simple idea of a single homogeneous Japanese group descending from a handful of ancestors is inaccurate. Japan’s ancient past seems to have been influenced by waves of migration from at least two and most likely three distinct groups. First, there were the Jomon Japan’s hunter-gatherers.

Jomon, the First Japanese

It all began about 38,000 years ago, long before the end of the last Ice Age. Cut off from mainland Asia by rising seas that covered the land bridges, the Japanese islands became home to a group of hunter-gatherers known as the Jomon. “Jomon” means “cord-marked,” which refers to the special pottery that is decorated with rope. Unlike many other hunter-gatherer groups at the time, the Jomon rarely moved, and lived in permanent villages.

The Jomon were short, with deep-set eyes and thick brow-ridges. They lived in pit-houses and roamed Japan’s forests wearing clothes made from bark fibers and animal hides. It is likely their ancestors split from other groups about 20,000 to 15,000 years ago, which is when the Jomon became isolated in Japan as rising waters cut off the land bridges. For nearly 10,000 years before the Yayoi arrived, the Jomon lived as the only people in Japan.

The Jomon are believed to have grown plants, like chestnuts, and managed the local forests. They were also spiritual people who made small clay figures known as dogu. Experts believe dogu may have been charms used for fertility or even healing ceremonies.

The Immigration of the Farmer-Yayoi

Between 300 BC and 300 AD, travelers from the Korean Peninsula and coastal China, known as Yayoi, made their way to Japan, bringing with them knowledge of rice-farming, metal tools, and weaving.

Unlike the Jomon hunters, the Yayoi were farmers who turned Japan from a hunting society into a farming economy centered around rice fields. The change was slow and involved both conflict and mixing. The Yayoi first settled in northern Kyushu before moving east into Honshu, where they went deeper into the forests previously used by the Jomon.

The Yayoi built houses with raised floors and lived in large villages led by powerful chiefs. Experts have found old bronze bells called dotaku at Yayoi sites, which show that they, like the Jomon before them, had spiritual beliefs, though theirs were more organized and focused on the farming seasons.

Physically, the Yayoi were, on average, taller than the Jomon and had distinct facial features. For many years, experts used a theory called the Dual-Structure Theory, created by scholar Kazuro Hanihara in 1991. Hanihara’s work hypothesized that modern Japanese people were the result of the Yayoi mixing with local people like the Jomon. While the theory still holds up today, modern DNA tests have changed the story, with studies finding that the amount of Jomon DNA in modern Japanese people is much lower than once thought. The DNA of the main ethnic group in Japan, the Yamato, contains just 10 to 20 percent Jomon markers.

A Mystery Wave Emerges

To make things even more complex, Japanese experts now prefer a model they call Triple-Structure to explain the main DNA strains of the populace. In 2021, scientists from Japan, Ireland, and China shared the results of the first DNA study of ancient Japanese remains. In the journal Science Advances (Cooke et al.), ancient DNA results showed that a third, very large wave of people entered Japan during the Kofun period, about 300 – 700 AD.

DNA tests show that the newcomers were mostly East Asian, like the Han Chinese people living in parts of East Asia today. The migrants, along with the Yayoi who came before them, went on to create the first central Japanese state. Experts have also seen an increase in advanced weaving and complex metal tools appearing among the items found from this period.

The Mixing of the 3 Groups

DNA tests have shown that this third wave of migrants added a large amount of new DNA to central Japan. The Jomon influence in modern Japanese people is strongest at the ends of the islands, with the Ainu people of Hokkaido and the people of Okinawa having much more Jomon DNA than people on the main island of Honshu.

The mixing of Jomon hunters and Yayoi farmers, along with the later Kofun migrants, created the unique Japanese people and culture we recognize today.

In a case of historical irony, around 1519, Spanish conquistadores helped reintroduce horses to the American continent. Cortés, the commander, brought sixteen; these early sires contributed to future herds. The transported Spanish breeds were all muscular, compact, and agile types. Central to Spanish military doctrine, equines signaled status, enhanced mobility for exploration, and warfare. 

With this landing, Cortés brought a reproducing population. Like in Europe, horses became vital to colonial administration. This unfamiliar environment killed many, but enough survived. Of these, more imports and reproductions of horses went where the Spanish settled.

Rapid Adoption and Adaptation

The horses’ impact was immediate, evident in cultural, economic, and military uses. Initially shocked by the Spanish cavalry, Native tribes quickly grasped the horse’s significance. 

And they adopted horses fast. By the late 1500s, Native tribes began building their own stock. Some traded with the Pueblo people, with their Spanish contacts. Other tribes, such as the Apaches and Utes, raided Spanish settlements in New Mexico. Feral herds provided another source, which Native people tamed. In addition to acquiring stock, tribes bred it to meet their unique needs.

The horse enabled Native cultures to evolve from a pedestrian culture. Besides hauling, horses also changed trade, enabling exchanges with distant tribes. Hunting strategies changed, too, from a slow, foot-based process to a swift, mobile chase. Using bows adapted for horseback, hunters could flank, pursue, or surround herds, becoming more efficient overall. 

Historically, the “horse frontier” moved more quickly than previously thought. Different evidence, genetic and archeological, showed that Plains and other Native tribes raised horses decades before European written history shows. Besides physical evidence, Lakota and Comanche oral traditions revealed that horses were already familiar and culturally embedded.

The Trade Network Link

In another change, historians now know the Spanish introduced horses. However, Native trading networks primarily distributed horses. Scholars incorrectly emphasized the 1680 Pueblo Revolt as the major release point for horses. Now, though, genetic and historical records show equestrian cultures existed in the Great Plains and Rockies by the 1600s. 

Examples of direct horse culture include the Shoshone and the Comanche. Shoshone acquired a reputation as horse breeders and traders. The eventual Comanche powerhouse rose to prominence by using horses. 

An Equine Revolution

Horses changed Native life at a blistering speed. Tribes became horse cultures within a generation or two. Besides cultural and economic benefits, the horse also introduced political instability. 

One cultural improvement involving horses led to an overall population increase. The Plains tribes benefited the most. Mounted buffalo hunting meant greater yields. With this new mobility, tribes shifted, following herds to entirely new hunting grounds. The result: food security became more stable.

The horse remapped Native tribe trading networks. Trading with other tribes or Europeans increased as distances decreased. The Kiowa (a Southern Plains tribe) occasionally traveled east, trading with eastern tribes such as the Wichita. Exchanged goods included horses for agriculture. The Shoshone traded their famous horses far north with the Nez Perce or Blackfeet tribes.

Over time, distinct Native breeds emerged, adding to this revolution. Tribes bred horses suiting their needs. Bloodlines were maintained, often selecting for endurance, temperament, or gait. Famous breeds like the Spanish Mustang and the Appaloosa trace their heritage to Spanish breeds. The term mustang comes from the Spanish word mesteno, meaning “wild” or “stray.” 

A New Kind of Warfare

The Native American tribes recognized the horse’s military potential. Being quick to learn, many Native tribes displayed some of history’s finest horsemanship. A new style of warfare emerged, changing the political or tribal landscape. Power could change rapidly, depending on which tribe had better resources or better equstrian skills. These new horse cultures pushed into new regions, breaking down barriers. For example, the Lakota Sioux grew rapidly, enabling them to push back their foes, the Pawnee, from parts of the Great Plains.

Three tribes adapted better than most, introducing true mobility, completely dominating their neighbors. The most undisputed were the Comanche. Their feared light cavalry fought the Spanish, Mexicans, or Americans equally. They controlled a region called Comancheria, which only declined in the late 19th century. Next came the Shoshone, the forebears of the Comanche.

The Eastern Shoshone, after the Ute tribe, mastered horses early. They became proficient riders and horse breeders. The third tribe, the Lakota, spread west onto the Plains. Like the Comanche, they stayed a dominant power for decades. Without a doubt, the horse reshaped Native American life. This process only took several generations as tribes adapted, changing power, culture, and economic life.

While the celebration was in full swing at the typical ancient Near Eastern wedding party, disaster suddenly struck—a true social catastrophe that would still fit the bill of a “wedding crisis” today: There was no more wine. This unexpected, awkward space is where Jesus Christ chose to perform his first public sign, which many would consider to be the most important.

The First Sign: More Than Just a Miracle

When reading the Gospel of John, one finds different actions of Jesus that are considered miraculous. There are well-known feats that are wonders (teras), and then there are signs (semeion). Signs do not look at the miracle itself but rather focus on the major ripple effects that follow.

The Wedding at Cana—water into wine—in John chapter 2, from verse 1 onward, is the first action in Jesus’ ministry. Being the first gives architectural importance to everything that follows, like a foundation of a building (or, in Biblical terms, like the cornerstone).

Interestingly, the timing of this sign seemed to catch Jesus by surprise. He tells his mother in verse 3, “My hour has not yet come,” just before doing the miracle that initiates his public ministry.

The Symbolism of Water into Wine

6 Now there were six stone water jars there for the Jewish rites of purification, each holding twenty or thirty gallons. 7 Jesus said to the servants, “Fill the jars with water.” And they filled them up to the brim. 8 And he said to them, “Now draw some out and take it to the master of the feast. 

This miracle of Jesus shows profound symbolism: From the starting point of Jewish rituals—the water jars—Jesus bridges the divide and offers what is needed through His blood—the wine—at the wedding feast—God’s Kingdom come.

Jesus Christ brought a theological shift from external ritual law to internal transformation and abundance. Through his death on the cross, he became the sin offering demanded by the Old Testament law. He fulfilled the law.

(For a better understanding of this, read Galatians 3 and Luke 5:33-39).

Mary’s Role and the Domestic Context

3 When the wine ran out, the mother of Jesus said to him, “They have no wine.” 4 And Jesus said to her, “Woman, what does this have to do with me? My hour has not yet come.” 5 His mother said to the servants, “Do whatever he tells you.”

Before the miracle, there’s an interesting dialogue between Jesus and his mother, Mary. In this, we see her influence, and yet Jesus only did what God told him to do. Through a literary lens, the domestic setting of a wedding, as the location of the first sign, helps us see the importance of human relationships and celebration in God’s divine work.

The Wedding at Cana in Masterpieces: From Giotto to Veronese

This pivotal miracle of Jesus has also inspired many to pick up a paintbrush. The scene of the wedding, the water, and the wine have often been used to showcase opulence, perspective, and theology. From somber depictions of the wedding in the Byzantine period to the modern day, the subject has been treated with detailed reverence.

Two of the most famous examples include Giotto’s early 14th-century depiction of an enclosed scene with Jesus and Mary as members of the bridal party, and the largest painting in the Louvre, The Wedding at Cana by Paolo Veronese. The latter, painted in 1563 is a canvas of 267 x 391 inches (or 677 x 994 cm), showing a much bigger, lavish scene, bustling with activity and bursting with color.

Historical and Archaeological Context of Cana

Today, there are two sites competing for the name of “Cana” (Khirbet Qana— archaeologists’ preferred spot—vs Kafr Kanna— the traditional pilgrimage destination).

With miraculous tales such as this one, it can be easy to imagine the Bible as a made-up story… Yet the archaeological and socio-cultural facts seem to be accurate—stone jars as described in this story have been excavated, grounding the elements in historical reality.

Despite the fact that this event is omitted from the synoptic Gospels, what happened at Cana was not just another one of the many miraculous signs that Jesus Christ did during his time on Earth; in many ways, it was the most important. In this seemingly simple miracle, the whole Gospel message is embodied. For Christians, it is about transformation and allowing Jesus to change one’s very nature.

Mary’s words are a message ringing out to generations of followers:  “Do whatever he tells you,” as their discipleship is still defined by obeying his teachings, even today.

The Sadducees were a political and religious sect of Jewish leaders, particularly in Jerusalem, during the second Temple period, lasting from around 200 BC to about 70 AD, until the second Temple’s destruction. They had a powerful impact on early Judaism, shaping how much of Jewish life and worship was controlled.

Origins of the Sadducees

No definite beginning period for the Sadducees exists, but the group developed sometime around the period following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, when his followers were fighting over his succession. Jerusalem was generally under Greek control at this time, and the Sadducees arose sometime during the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom, whose rulers operated under Seleucid control until the Romans took over in the first century BC. The Sadducees were a more aristocratic class than their main opponents, the Pharisees, and they controlled and administered the Temple. Thus, it is from their ranks that the priestly class was drawn. 

What the Sadducees Believed

As there are no surviving writings from the Sadducees, very little is known about their beliefs, and what we do know is from their detractors. The Sadducees believed strictly in the first five books of the Old Testament, called the Torah. They rejected any oral traditions, as opposed to the Pharisees, who accepted oral tradition. They also rejected the ideas of an immortal soul and resurrection of the dead, and they disbelieved in spiritual beings, such as angels.

Literature on the Sadducees

In the Gospels, Jesus Christ had various encounters with the Sadducees and Pharisees together, as they tended to oppose his ministry. The Apostle Paul also had a significant encounter with them in Jerusalem:

“6 Now when Paul perceived that one part were Sadducees and the other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, “Brothers, I am a Pharisee, a son of Pharisees. It is with respect to the hope and the resurrection of the dead that I am on trial.” 7 And when he had said this, a dissension arose between the Pharisees and the Sadducees, and the assembly was divided. 8 For the Sadducees say that there is no resurrection, nor angel, nor spirit, but the Pharisees acknowledge them all.” – Acts 25:6-7

Prominent Sadducees

John Hyrcanus was High Priest of Israel from 134 BC to 104 BC.  He was related to Judas Maccabeus, who led a Jewish revolt in 167-160 BC. John led the Jewish people against the Seleucid Empire’s attempts to establish control over them. At first, he was unsuccessful, being defeated in a siege of Jerusalem by the Seleucids, but he was able to eventually re-establish Jewish control over Judea until it was absorbed into the Roman Empire. John was a former Pharisee who became a Sadducee later in his reign.

Annas and Caiaphas were the High Priests in Jesus’ time, mentioned at various points in the Gospels. While nothing is explicitly written as to their affiliation, they were likely Sadducees, as most of the High Priests came from that sect. Caiaphas was prominently behind the plot to put Jesus Christ to death.

What Happened to the Sadducees?

After the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 AD, the Sadducees faded away in history. Their sect was intimately tied to Temple worship, as they believed that true worship occurred in the Temple with its practices. While the Pharisees and the synagogue system survived due to their belief that worship was in the reading of God’s word, the Sadducees (many of whom also likely died in the siege of Jerusalem at that time) went away with the Temple.

David was ancient Israel’s most beloved king. But the tragic story of his top military commander invites an exploration into the hazards of extreme loyalty. Tasked with protecting David personally as well as the interests of his kingdom, Joab ruthlessly eliminated threats to the throne. But though his loyalty never wavered, when David began issuing commands that were clearly against his own kingdom’s interests, Joab’s obedience did. On his deathbed, David called for the general who had served him devotedly for more than four decades to be executed. 

Joab Joined David When He Was Running From Saul

The story of David begins when the prophet Samuel surreptitiously anoints him as king in his family’s home, setting in motion a conflict with Israel’s reigning king that would later burgeon into a civil war. 

David famously came under Saul’s employ as his musician and personal armor bearer as a young man. But when Saul’s jealousy and fear of David’s influence become murderous, David is forced to flee into the wilderness. 

David spent over a decade as King Saul’s fugitive. The Bible says that, early in this period of his life, a ragtag band of followers formed around him composed mostly of other fugitives. Members of David’s family, who were also surely in danger of Saul’s wrath, also joined David. Among these were David’s three nephews by his paternal aunt Zeruiah: Joab, Abishai, and Asahel. All three became fearless and dependable warriors for David during his fugitive years, and stayed in his service after he was crowned king. 

Joab’s Brother Asahel Was Killed by Abner, Saul’s General

Saul had set up his capital in the Benjamite city of Gibeah, north of Jerusalem. But when he loses to the Philistines and dies in battle, his surviving family is forced across the Jordan River. According to the Bible, Abner, who had been Saul’s general, establishes one of Saul’s surviving sons, who is named Ish-Bosheth, as Israel’s king in the city of Mahanaim, in the region of Gilead. David, meanwhile, is enthroned in Hebron, in Judah, and a civil war ensues. 

During the first battle, Asahel tries to kill Abner. But Abner brutally slays Asahel instead, using the blunt end of his spear. Joab fails to overtake Abner as he and his army flee and, thus, must postpone revenge for his brother.  

Israel continues as two separate, battling kingdoms for the next seven and a half years, with David reigning over Judah and Ish-Bosheth reigning over the remainder of Israel that had kept its loyalty for the house of Saul. 

Joab Is Avenged of His Brother’s Killing

The Bible says that, as David’s kingdom grew stronger, Ish-Bosheth’s grew weaker as time went on.  Though Abner had been deeply loyal to Saul, his dedication was not without limit. When Ish-Bosheth accuses Abner of having intercourse with one of Saul’s previous wives—which would constitute an act of rebellion—Abner decides to defect to David’s side and vows to help him subsume all of Israel under his rule. When Abner arrives in Hebron, David receives him with a welcome feast, celebrating their new alliance. But Joab is not present. 

When Joab returns, he is furious with David for having let the brilliant general of his nemesis go free. Persuaded that Abner had manipulated David and secretly intended to overthrow him, Joab sends messengers to call Abner back to Hebron. As he arrives, Joab lures him aside, then summarily stabs his brother’s killer in the stomach. David curses Joab for this but, nevertheless, retains him in his army.    

Joab Was Frustrated By David’s Relationship with His Sons

Joab’s loyalty, drive, and unparalleled skill as a military leader had been demonstrated clearly enough during his many years of service to David that, by the time David finally established himself as king over a united Israel, Joab was made chief commander of his entire army. According to the Bible, Joab went on to lead Israel alongside David in stunning victories over Philistine, Syrian, Moabite, Edomite, and other enemy forces. 

But Joab’s successes against David’s foreign enemies would be quickly overshadowed by his inability to navigate David’s dangerously tumultuous family relationships. 

When David’s oldest son Amnon rapes his half-sister Tamar, Absalom, David’s third son by another wife and the full brother of Tamar, leads his other brothers in murdering Amnon in revenge. Absalom flees. But Joab (perhaps empathizing with Absalom, being himself a stickler for street justice), cleverly persuades David to allow Absalom to return to the palace. However, David refuses to speak with his son for two years. 

Absalom Became a Thorn in Joab’s Side

With ambitions to be the next king, Absalom knew that it must appear to the Israelites that he and his father were on good terms. But with David refusing to speak with him, he decided to bet on Joab’s influence to force an invitation into the palace. To get Joab’s attention, who by this time was also ignoring him, Absalom orders his servants to set one of Joab’s barley fields on fire. Joab appreciates the depth of Absalom’s resolve, and asks David to relent.  

But Absalom’s motive in meeting with David, as the story is told, is merely for the sake of appearance. As soon as he leaves his father’s presence, he begins to build himself a following by cultivating the people’s grievances with David and promising justice under his own rule. Finally, he declares himself king in Hebron, and appoints Amasa, another of David’s nephews, commander over the army instead of Joab. 

Joab Killed Absalom

Ironically, Absalom’s coup forced David and all who remained loyal to him to flee from Jerusalem to Mahanaim, the very place his former rival Ish-Bosheth had been enthroned. 

Joab, as the leader of David’s army, was obliged to seek David’s return to power in Jerusalem. But he was put in a difficult position when David commanded him not to harm Absalom. As the saga unfolds, the armies of Absalom and David meet in a forest of Ephraim. But as Absalom is riding through the forest, his flowing hair—a complement to his striking good looks—gets caught in the branches of a tree. His frightened mule leaves him hanging there, where Joab’s men find him.  

Dutifully aware of David’s command not to harm Absalom, the men report to Joab that Absalom is stuck by his hair in a tree. Joab declares his intention to ignore David’s command, and thrusts three javelins through the prince’s dangling body.  

David Advised Solomon to Execute Joab

With Absalom dead, David was able to return to Jerusalem. But while David was eager to bring the conflict to an end, Joab saw Amasa as a threat. Once again in defiance of David’s wishes yet with David’s protection in mind, Joab called Amasa aside and, just like he had done to Abner, pulled a sword without warning and killed him. 

Despite Joab’s lifelong commitment to David, David had grown resentful toward him by the end of his life. On his deathbed, he advises Solomon to put his life to an end. 

The story of the end of David’s life is full of intrigue. Joab seems to assume that David’s son Adonijah, who was older than Solomon, would succeed him as on the throne, and therefore joins in the celebration when Adonijah is declared king as David lies dying. But Adonijah was actually a usurper. To the surprise of all outside the palace, David endorses Solomon as king instead.

Joab Is Killed Inside the Tabernacle

Due to David’s choice of Solomon, Joab’s support for Adonijah becomes an act of rebellion, giving Solomon the excuse he needs to have Joab killed. Solomon sends a man named Benaiah, later to become his own general, to summon Joab to answer for himself. 

Knowing his fate, Joab desperately runs into the Tabernacle, Israel’s place of sacrifice and worship, and clings to the horns that decorate the edges of its huge altar, perhaps hoping that fear of defiling the holy place would save his life. When the report reaches Solomon, however, he tells Benaiah to simply slay Joab there, at the base of the altar. 

David had no more loyal subject than Joab. Joab, in fact, even helped David commit the crime of having Uriah killed. But in the end, David could not overlook Joab’s penchant for taking vengeance into his own hands. He wanted a type of obedience that was unlikely to come from a passionate character like Joab.