The rise of fascism in Japan was not a simple process. It began with an upsurge of radical nationalism that transformed a democratic nation into a militaristic dictatorship, and led to the catastrophic conflict of World War II. Japanese fascism was unique in that it drew from a well of military tradition and worship of the emperor to create a doctrine that set it apart from its fascist allies.
Historical Context: From Meiji Restoration to Taisho Democracy
The restoration of the Meiji Emperor in 1868 ended centuries of military rule under the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Meiji Restoration heralded a period of rapid modernization and industrialization as the previously isolated nation of Japan began to look towards the West. This period was characterized by significant changes in almost every aspect of society, including the formation of a centralized government in Tokyo, an industrial revolution, and the end of the samurai ruling class. Japan rapidly gained power and influence in Asia as it sought to emulate the institutional and technological achievements of its Western competitors.
This period of transition was marked by social and economic upheaval, as some Japanese people saw the Meiji Emperor as having abandoned the traditions of Japanese culture too swiftly. After the Meiji period, Emperor Taishō was installed as the leader of the nation. However, the rapidly declining health of this new emperor led to a period known as the Taishō Democracy (1912-1926), when government officials took control of the levers of power and increased political engagement, allowing the influence of Western ideas to spread. This period of liberal democracy was brief, and it did not address the deep underlying issues of Japanese society, such as socioeconomic inequality and political factionalism.
In response to the rapid political and social developments of the early 20th century, feelings of nationalism began to spread across Japan. These ideas were further accelerated by a belief that Japan must embrace ultra-nationalism to combat Western imperialism and uphold the legacy of the Japanese nation. In essence, the rapid forward-thinking growth of the Meiji and Taishō eras prepared the way for the rise of statism and militarism in the decades that followed.
Ideological Foundations: Nationalism and the Emperor System
The ideological core of Japanese fascism was the Japanese cultural worship of the emperor as a semi-religious figure, combined with ultra-nationalism. For the Japanese people, the emperor was much more than a head of state. He represented the nation’s identity and was a divine manifestation of their spirit. This idea provided the militaristic and ultra-nationalist movements with an ideological foundation as they aimed to reshape Japanese society.
The policy of “kokutai” is a profound example of these ideological trends. Originating from the late 1700s, this concept proposed that Japan’s founding myths were more than religious beliefs but incontrovertible facts that upheld the emperor’s divine mandate. The ideology of “kokutai” emphasized social peace, loyalty, and a hierarchical social structure that emphasized how every Japanese citizen was part of a greater national whole.
The system of kokutai synthesized with increasing calls for militarism and expansionism, with the goal of protecting and advancing the emperor’s divine nation. Essentially, the military was seen as the purest manifestation of the emperor’s will. This ideological framework strengthened militarism’s hold on the state by encouraging military allegiance and providing justification for aggressive domestic and international activities.
The Economic and Social Crisis of the 1920s and 1930s
The Wall Street Crash and the ensuing economic and social crises of the 1920s and 1930s severely strained democracies worldwide, and Japan was no exception. The resulting decline in agricultural prices contributed significantly to social and economic unrest in Japan. As the prices fell, rural communities plummeted into a deep depression, and Japan’s nascent industrial sector faced huge obstacles as revenues diminished. Amidst this economic turmoil, a growing belief that the democratic political system could not solve the country’s problems took hold. As a result, radical ideologies such as ultra-nationalism flourished, as they offered definitive answers to the social and economic problems that plagued Japan.
In the economic context of the 1920s and 30s, ultra-nationalist and militaristic factions started to gain ground publically. These ideologies advocated a return to traditional values as well as increased investment in the military. They denounced the perceived shortcomings of democratic governance and promised economic and national renewal. Their ability to appeal to citizens who were desperate and unhappy had a major role in the emergence of fascism in Japan.
Political Upheaval: The Ascendancy of Militaristic and Ultra-Nationalist Factions
As the global depression worsened, Japan’s economic problems and political unrest began to rise across the country, and nationalism took hold. During the 1920s and 30s, the Japanese military began to move into politics and take over positions of power previously held by civilians. Once in their new positions, these military leaders used their office to push for the aggressive expansion of the Japanese nation into neighboring territories to achieve their nationalist goals.
The 1930s saw accelerationist groups gain power in Japan as ultra-nationalists began a series of violent takeovers of state institutions and political assassinations to achieve their aims. For a time, the Japanese military was opposed in government by Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi, who denounced their nationalist aims. However, on May 15th, 1932, Tsuyoshi was killed in his official residence by a group of nationalist naval officers who also attacked several government institutions. The killing of Tsuyoshi marked the effective end of civilian government in Japan and led the way for total military rule.
Some key groups that supported the military takeover were ultra-nationalist organizations like the Black Dragon Society and the Cherry Blossom Society. These organizations had a significant impact on public opinion and legislation and rose to prominence as a result of the political unrest. These organizations quickly led Japan toward authoritarianism and militarism by promoting strong, centralized power, the military’s exaltation, and imperial ambition.
The Mukden Incident and the Road to Militarism
Prior to the assassination of Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in 1932, the Mukden Incident the year before proved a turning point in Japan’s descent towards military fascism. The Mukden Incident was a planned bombing of a railway line in Manchuria that was organized by the Kwantung Army, which maintained security in Japan’s Kwantung leased territory in China. Their aim was to use the Mukden bombing as a false flag operation to trigger a large-scale invasion and occupation of Manchuria by the Japanese military. The incident not only turned the nation towards militarism but signaled the start of Japan’s territorial expansion in Asia, and demonstrated the military’s increasing autonomy.
In the wake of the bombing, the Japanese people came out overwhelmingly in support of the invasion and occupation of Manchuria. This public support further bolstered the nationalist military factions in the Japanese government. Japan took its first steps towards its imperial ambition when it founded the puppet state of Manchukuo in the region of Manchuria, which it had invaded. The Mukden Incident was significant in that it showed the ultra-nationalist factions how the military could direct national policy without consulting civilian authorities.
Furthermore, the Mukden Incident further signaled the beginning of a full-scale militarization of Japan’s government by highlighting the change from defensive to aggressive militarism. During this time, conscription became mandatory, military spending surged, and propaganda efforts extolling the virtues of military conscription and growth were launched. As a result of these events, militaristic attitudes became more deeply ingrained in Japanese society, pushing the country toward an expansionist and belligerent foreign policy that would have catastrophic consequences.
Institutions and Legal Framework: Establishing Statism and Authoritarian Control
During the reign of the Showa emperor Hirohito, which began in 1926, a unique form of Japanese nationalism akin to European fascism took hold. It became known as Showa statism. In Showa Japan, statism placed a strong emphasis on state control over the economy, the educational system, and personal freedoms. To enforce centralized control and prevent public dissent, the Showa government put into practice a number of decrees and regulations that codified the ideology of Japanese fascism.
Originally intended to target socialist and communist movements, the Peace Preservation Law of 1925 was expanded to be a more general tool for the nationalist government to suppress any resistance to its rule. Stifling freedom of thought and expression became routine. With censorship, surveillance, and the incarceration of political dissidents, the military consolidated its hold on power, overcoming civilian scrutiny and becoming ingrained in the political system.
To further reinforce their nationalist ideals and allegiance to the Showa Emperor in the hearts of the Japanese youth, the educational system was also completely redesigned. Textbooks were updated, and state-approved views that extolled the country and its armed forces were introduced into the curriculum. These institutional adjustments made it easier for a militarized, authoritarian, and tightly regulated state to emerge, which opened the door for Japan’s assertive acts abroad.
Japan in World War II: Alignment With the Axis Powers of Fascist Germany and Italy
While Japan had sought to expand its empire since the start of the 20th century, the aggressive militarism and expansionism of the 1930s led to an inevitable large-scale conflict with other major powers. The first of which was the Second Sino-Japanese War, which began in 1936 and lasted until the end of the Second World War.
In the midst of these conflicts, Japan sought out alliances as a geopolitical counterbalance against Western powers, especially the United States, which had imposed economic sanctions and given China military backing. Japan turned to the European fascist nations of Germany and Italy, who joined together to sign the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936. It represented a united front against communism and the Soviet Union and served as a model for the future Tripartite Pact.
The global dynamics of World War II were significantly shaped by Japan’s entry into the conflict and its collaboration with the Axis Powers, which included fascist Germany and Italy. This partnership was formalized on September 27, 1940, when the Tripartite Pact was signed, forging a single front against the Allied Powers. This alliance resulted in one of the most aggressive military coalitions in history because of shared ideological underpinnings, overlapping geopolitical objectives, and reciprocal strategic interests.
The alliance’s strategic goal was to split and subjugate large areas of Asia and Europe. German and Italian offensives in Europe and North Africa coincided with Japan’s military campaigns in East Asia and the Pacific, resulting in a multi-front conflict that outnumbered the Allied forces. Following Japan’s full-scale entry into the war on December 7, 1941, with the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States declared war on Japan, Germany, and Italy.
Lessons From History and the Enduring Legacy of Showa Statism
The emergence of fascism in Japan, which led to militarism and statism, is a lesson for modern society. It emphasizes how political unrest, economic hardship, and ideological conservatism can come together to undermine democratic institutions and create the conditions for authoritarian leadership. The way Japan changed during the Showa period provides a sobering reminder of the perils associated with unbridled nationalism and militarism.
Japan undertook extensive reforms after the war to destroy its fascist institutions and restore democratic rule. But lingering effects of this era, such as discussions about military normalization and constitutional amendment, show how militarism and statism continue to influence national conversation.
