As the Great War ended, the Allied air forces saw the need for precision bombing. Level bombing attacks, though safe, failed to hit targets directly. But dive bombing provided nearly pinpoint accuracy. In a dive bomb attack, the plane steeply dove at the target. The pilot kept his eyes on the target, increasing accuracy. At the optimal moment, the pilot released the bomb and abruptly pulled up.

The Allies tinkered with dive bombing first, but the fragile canvas-and-wood Great War planes lacked a rigid airframe that could handle the stress caused by such maneuvers. The 1920s saw some planes built, like the Curtiss Hawk, that validated but didn’t fully explore the concept.

Interwar Aviation Innovations and the Design of the Ju 87

By the early 1930s, dive-bombing was a confirmed technique. Specialized planes appeared just for this one function. The Stuka, short for “Sturzkampfflugzeug” – dive bomber in German, first flew in 1935. The Junkers prototype’s inverted gull wings and fixed landing gear gave it a distinctive appearance, making it easily recognizable by friends and foes alike.

After testing the Stuka concept, Junkers initially built two prototypes using British engines. At this time, Junkers installed rotating pull-up dive brakes and wind-driven sirens on the wings. Two rivals, Heinkel and Arado, built prototypes as well. The rival company’s prototype, the Heinkel He 118, crashed during a test dive. Unfortunately for Heinkel, Ernst Udet, the Luftwaffe’s development head, was the pilot when one engine’s propeller broke. The Luftwaffe chose the Junkers Ju 87 officially in 1937.

Construction began quickly as Nazi Germany re-armed, having invalidated the Versailles Treaty. Hitler aimed to defeat the West and then pivot to attack Soviet Russia—a plan that required a prepared military.

How the Stuka Redefined Modern Close Air Support

The Stuka’s dive-bombing role lent itself to the Wehrmacht’s new combined arms warfare doctrine. German armored strategy used tanks as spearheads, focusing on speed and exploitation. Any obstacles meant Stukas swooping in for close air support, just a radio call away. The Stuka’s official debut occurred on September 1, 1939, with Poland’s invasion.

Tactical Dominance Across the Campaigns in Poland and France

Unleashed in Poland and again in the June 1940 French invasion, the Stuka shone. With its rugged construction, heavy bomb load, and quick response times, the Ju 87 sowed terror among both refugees and military units. 

Adding to the chaos with its sirens, nicknamed Jericho Trumpets, wailing and screaming in a dive, the Stuka instilled fear as it struck, often bombing or strafing refugee columns. These sounds alone created a psychological edge beyond the Stuka’s impact. Besides enemy defenses, Stukas ranged ahead of German panzer columns, striking targets like bridges, supply dumps, and troop concentrations. 

How the Battle of Britain Unmasked Fatal Flaws in the Stuka

With France’s June 1940 surrender, only the English Channel remained an obstacle. The Luftwaffe occupied French airfields, mustering several massive air fleets. The Battle of Britain began in earnest, with Stukas launching the first strikes, primarily targeting Channel shipping. Here, the Stuka faced the tough RAF, squaring off against modern fighters like the Hurricane.

The Stuka’s vulnerabilities suddenly became glaring. Despite all its pluses, like accuracy and toughness, its slow speed and lack of maneuverability made for an easy target. As a result, the RAF blew dozens from the sky. After only a month or so, the Luftwaffe withdrew the Stuka squadrons, transferring many home or to other fronts.

Redeploying the Stuka Fleet to the Mediterranean and Eastern Fronts

Despite the setback in Britain, the Stuka’s reputation as a strike weapon suffered little. In late 1940 and 1941, the Luftwaffe dive bomber squadrons, or Sturzkampfgeschwader, operated in the Mediterranean and over the Soviet Union during Operation Barbarossa. 

The Stuka wreaked havoc on both fronts, especially in Russia, although close air support missions proved costly without fighter escort. The Stukas ranged ahead of German panzer columns, hitting airfields and supply centers especially hard, but as the war progressed, the Stuka’s inability to defend itself against better Allied fighters led to higher losses. 

The Shift to Tank Hunting and the Twilight of the Ju 87

Though useful, the Stuka’s heyday had ended by 1942. Still, the Stuka assumed a larger anti-tank role with twin wing-mounted 3.7-centimeter cannons. These proved devastating when attacking massed Soviet tank columns but only with fighter cover. The Stuka’s last big hurrah came at the 1943 Battle of Kursk. Once seen as an essential part of the Luftwaffe, these slow, ungainly attack planes usually flew night missions. 

Production of the type ceased in August 1944, with around 6,000 built. The Ju 87 Stuka garnered a reputation as a terror weapon. Few, if any, matched it until later in the war.

Despite ultimately achieving victory, the Soviet Union lost tens of millions of people during World War II. As the people bled for their country, so did the cities eschew plumes of dust and smoke from deep within the bricks and mortar of their foundations. Moscow, the Soviet capital, was a glittering prize for the German war machine, and one that Hitler attempted to capture by the end of Operation Barbarossa. What happened in Moscow in the winter of 1941/42 and why did it matter?

Moscow During the War

Being the capital of the Soviet Union, Moscow was the main target for the German invasion. They hoped that by capturing the city, they would force the Soviet Union to capitulate. The Soviets, however, were intent on defending the city at all costs.

The Germans had made critical errors in their invasion, believing that Operation Barbarossa—the invasion of the Soviet Union—would be quick and decisive. When it began on June 22, 1941, the Soviets were taken by surprise, and the initial German advances were stunning. Soviet armies were confused and impotent, and quickly surrounded. To the Germans it looked as if the defense of Moscow would be pitiful.

The plan to take Moscow was enacted in Operation Typhoon, a bold pincer movement that the Germans expected would cut the city off from resupply and force the Soviets to surrender.

Soviet resolve, however, was a great deal stronger than Hitler had imagined. Soviet divisions were brought in from the east to strengthen the defensive lines, and the German offensive was slowed, giving the Soviets enough time to prepare effective defenses around their capital city.

The closer the Germans got to Moscow, the more the Soviet resistance stiffened, in part due the fact that Stalin refused to leave the city. His presence was a major factor in boosting the morale of Soviet troops.

Despite enormous losses, the Soviets continued to harass the Luftwaffe in the skies above, inflicting losses that the Germans could not easily sustain. Every night, the sky above Moscow was lit up with searchlights and tracer rounds from anti-aircraft guns. As the weather turned, air operations were drastically reduced, and the focus turned to the fighting on the ground.

Despite achieving success in the months preceding the attack on Moscow, the German offensive had slowed. German commanders found themselves in a difficult and critical position. The window of opportunity for taking Moscow was closing fast, and the chances of achieving victory were diminishing. Although many officers realized that Moscow was an unattainable target, the operation went ahead. They had rightly feared the onset of the Russian winter, but none were prepared for the harshness it presented.

The fighting was fierce, and German forces managed to advance to within a few miles of the city. In the distance, they could see the domes of St. Basil’s Cathedral in Red Square, but they would not be able to advance further. Fresh divisions arrived to bolster the Red Army’s defense, while the Germans were plagued by logistical inadequacies.

With winter approaching, the rains turned the roads to mud, bogging down the advance of German tanks. By early November, a bitter cold had set in. Although the icy cold hardened the ground, easing the logistical difficulties and allowing German armor to advance, it also froze the grease in German guns, and gave the soldiers frostbite. They were ill-equipped for the harsh winter.

By the beginning of December, it was clear that the German offensive was a complete failure. The Germans, however, continued to underestimate their enemy and expected that Soviet manpower would be so depleted that they would not be able to launch a counteroffensive. They were mistaken.

On December 5, after receiving major reinforcements from the east, the Soviets launched their counteroffensive. Although they failed in their attempts to encircle the German army, they were successful in pushing the Germans back from the capital, hammering a final nail in the coffin of Operation Barbarossa.

Taking Shelter

Moscow suffered the worst aerial bombardments from October to November 1941, while German forces on the ground were preparing to assault and capture the city. For the Muscovites, the immediate need was to find shelter from the Luftwaffe’s bombs.

Like London during the Blitz, Moscow was well equipped to provide this shelter, and many made use of the sturdy protection offered by the Moscow Metro.

During the day, Metro trains ran as normal, but during the night, and during air raids, the trains stopped, and the Metro stations took in the people of Moscow, providing shelter from the danger above.

There were attempts to provide basic services. Doctors were on hand and food was distributed. Beds and cribs were installed for those in need, while the majority of people slept in the coaches, on benches, and on the floors. One station even opened a library.

Under the onslaught, the Soviet General Staff was under the impression that Moscow would fall, and the decision was taken on October 15 to evacuate the Metro and flood it. This decision was, however, reversed soon after it was made. The following day, October 16, 1941, is the only day in history when the Moscow Metro failed to open on time.

The Moscow Metro provided protection for many millions of people. After the immediate danger had passed, work began on expanding the Metro, and new lines and stations were opened while the country remained at war.

The Significance of the Battle

From a strategic perspective, the Battle of Moscow was a major turning point in the war, but it was by no means the most important turning point. After steamrolling through Europe on both fronts, the Battle of Moscow was Germany’s first major reversal of fortunes. Despite not being able to capture the city, the German forces were not spent. The Germans focused their attention on other points on the Eastern Front that would culminate in deadlier battles, reducing Germany’s offensive capabilities and putting the Third Reich into a complete defensive posture.

For the Soviets, the victory represented a moral and spiritual triumph rather than a definitive defeat of the German war machine. While Leningrad remained under siege, Moscow was freed from immediate danger, and the Soviet war effort would continue to be directed from the capital.

For the Germans, they had encountered the mighty resolve of the Soviet people and the unbelievably harsh conditions of the Russian winter. It certainly would not be the last time they would suffer at the hands of this deadly combination.

Unsurprisingly, Hitler was furious. His plan to knock the Soviet Union out with a quick blow had failed dismally. For Walther von Brauchitsch, the Commander-in-Chief of the German Army, things would not play out well. He had been at odds with Hitler before and the two had argued over military matters.

In November he suffered a heart attack, after which he was informed that he had an incurable heart disease. The following month, after the failure of German troops to take Moscow, Hitler sacked him.

Von Brauchitsch spent the rest of the war in forced retirement.

Today, the victory is celebrated each year on November 7 by a parade through Red Square, and a reenactment of the battle.

Damage and Casualties

Although some parts of the city suffered severe damage, especially from aerial bombardment, the damage was relatively light when compared with Stalingrad a year later. On the ground, most of the fighting had occurred in the outer suburbs or the surrounding countryside. The battle was massive, and the fighting was brutal. Hundreds of thousands of troops were involved on both sides.

There are many variables in trying to determine losses, as academics debate over when the Battle of Moscow officially started and ended. Additionally, the veracity of certain sources is difficult to verify as both sides had political interests in underreporting or overreporting casualty figures.

Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that the Soviets lost around 600,000 to 700,000 killed, wounded, or missing. Historian David M. Glantz adds another 370,955 to this figure, including the winter counteroffensive, which lasted until January 7, 1942.

The German losses are subject to huge discrepancies, as it is believed that commanders underreported their losses. Official reports at the time put the number of dead, wounded, and missing at under 200,000, while Soviet estimates put the figure at almost 600,000. The truth is likely to be somewhere between these numbers.

On a wider scale, over the period of Operation Barbarossa from June 22, 1941 to February 1942, the Germans killed an estimated 2.8 million Soviet prisoners of war across the entire front through various means including starvation, and exposure to the elements. This deliberate act was one of the most horrifying cases of genocide and would continue for the remainder of the war. According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the final total would be 3.3 million Soviet military POWs killed—roughly 57 percent of all those taken prisoner.

The Soviets understood that this was a war of extermination, and as such, they realized that surrender meant death.

A Crucial Step Forwards

Until the outcome of the Battle of Moscow, Soviet fortunes in the war had been critically poor. Whole armies were encircled and taken captive, while an inability to coordinate movements plagued any Soviet attempts at defense.

Understandably, many Germans thought their stunning advance would continue and Moscow would fall without too much trouble. For the Soviets, too, this seemed like a real possibility.

Debating what would have happened had the Germans succeeded is a major point of academic discourse. Moscow was the capital of the Soviet Union. Some historians argue that its capture would have precipitated the surrender of Soviet armies across the entire Eastern Front, leading to the full capitulation of the Soviet Union, while others believe the war would have simply moved eastwards, and the Soviets would continue the fight with renewed vigor.

The truth of the matter is that Moscow was not captured by the Germans. The Soviets won the battle and drove the Germans back. What this represented was massive. A seemingly unstoppable advance (and the biggest invasion in history) had, in fact, been halted in its tracks.

It bought the Soviets the time they needed to mobilize further. A year later, they would see victory at Stalingrad, and follow it up with another huge victory at the Battle of Kursk. These two events provided the impetus the Soviets needed to turn the tide against the Germans. The Battle of Moscow was the first step in being able to achieve final victory in World War II.

Conventional military wisdom suggests that massive industrial power, elite training, and superior firepower guarantee victory on the battlefield. Yet history tells a far more chaotic story. Time and again, underdog rebel militias and local insurgents have defeated much more powerful forces. By trading pitched field battles for hit-and-run ambushes, grueling attrition, and terrain mastery, these six insurgencies achieved what military analysts would have considered impossible.

1. Haitian Revolution and the Defeat of Napoleon

After its conquest by Spain in the 1500s, the island of Hispaniola became a colony of multiple European powers for around 300 years. France and Spain imported thousands of Africans to work in gold mines and sugar farms as slaves. By 1789, France controlled half of the island, which they named Saint-Domingue. The colony had a population of 560,000, most of whom were slaves. The horrific living conditions they endured made a revolt inevitable.

According to Antoine Dalmas, a French physician in Haiti, in August 1791, Haitian conspirators gathered at Bois Caïman during a violent tropical storm. Led by the Voodoo priest Dutty Boukman and priestess Cécile Fatiman, the leaders sacrificed a black pig, drank its blood, and swore a sacred pact to destroy the plantation system. Within days, hundreds of thousands of enslaved people rose up simultaneously, torching sugar fields and lighting up the night sky so brightly it was visible miles at sea.

The revolutionary French government in 1793 banned slavery and granted citizenship to mixed-race Haitians. Toussaint Louverture, a wealthy mixed-race landowner, took control of much of the colony and agreed to keep it under French rule with limited autonomy. However, First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte reinstituted slavery and launched a military expedition to oust Toussaint in 1802. Over 20,000 French troops arrived and began fighting Toussaint’s militias. As more troops arrived, roughly 60-80,000 French soldiers served in the campaign. Louverture adopted a brutal scorched-earth policy, burning Port-au-Prince and Cap-Français to the ground to leave the invading force with zero shelter or supplies. Nevertheless, the French captured him, and he subsequently died in French captivity in April 1803.

The Haitians continued to fight under the leadership of men such as Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who staged a hit-and-run campaign against French forces. French forces suffered staggering casualties from Haitian ambushes and yellow fever. Reportedly 50,000 French troops died of the disease. They could beat the Haitians in pitched battles, but they struggled to track them down in the jungles. By 1804, French troops were bottled up by Haitian rebels and the British Navy in the last colonial outpost at Gonaïves. When they surrendered, Haiti gained its independence at the cost of over 200,000 people.

2. Spanish Peninsular War and the Birth of Guerrilla Tactics

In 1807, Emperor Napoleon dispatched an army to invade Portugal through Spain. The French military presence in Spain was unpopular among many Spaniards, and in May 1808, residents of Madrid staged a revolt against French forces. The brutal suppression of this revolt led to the rise of a widespread insurgency throughout Spain. French forces struggled to handle the rise of ambushes and raids on their outposts, and they lashed out at the civilian population.

In July 1808, Napoleon imprisoned King Charles IV of Spain and his son Ferdinand VII and installed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. The regular army struggled to resist French occupation, and many Spanish peasants and soldiers took to the countryside to fight as insurgents without a higher military command structure. They called themselves guerrilleros, coining the term guerrilla warfare.

The insurgents and Spanish regulars who refused to serve King Joseph received assistance from the British, who hoped to push the French army out of the Iberian Peninsula entirely. As the French occupation grew more brutal, more Spaniards joined the revolt, threatening French supply lines. French communication across Spain became a logistics nightmare. Single couriers carrying dispatches were routinely intercepted and killed. To guarantee a single letter made it from Madrid back to Paris, the French army eventually had to assign escorts of up to 200 armed cavalrymen just to protect a single messenger from roadside ambushes.

By 1812, it was estimated that close to 40,000 guerrilleros were fighting the French. Their attacks grew bolder, and Spanish regulars fought under the Duke of Wellington’s command. By 1814, British, Spanish, and Portuguese forces pushed the French out of the peninsula and invaded France. While the guerrilleros did not win the war single-handedly, their actions proved vital in destabilizing French rule in Spain.

3. Great Arab Revolt and the Fall of the Ottoman Empire

Before the First World War began, Arab tribes in the Mashriq began advocating for more freedom from the Ottoman Empire. After the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, Arab nationalists began demanding more sovereignty and equality with Turks. They lacked the force to get what they wanted, but many hoped that the British and French would help them realize their ambitions once the war broke out.

Starting in 1914, British officials in Egypt began surreptitiously communicating with the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, and his son Abdullah. Hussein originally sided with the Ottomans but decided to support the Entente, believing that it would create an Arab empire in the Hejaz.

Hussein ordered members of his family to lead Arab warriors in raids against Turkish outposts throughout the Arabian Peninsula. The raiders struggled due to a lack of munitions and the unwillingness of many Arab soldiers within the Ottoman ranks to desert. However, by 1916, several important population centers, such as Ta’if and Mecca, were free of Ottoman control. Later that year, Hussein was joined by British Captain T.E. Lawrence.

Lawrence was sent along with other Anglo-French officers by his commanders to liaise with the Arab rebels. He managed to convince the different Arab leaders to work together and coordinate their actions with the Entente. Instead of marching on Medina, Lawrence and Hussein took their forces north along the Hejaz railway towards Aqaba. Using mobile camel cavalry to lay explosives along hundreds of miles of isolated track, the guerrillas repeatedly ambushed armored trains. Rather than destroying the railway completely, they deliberately kept it barely functional, forcing the Ottoman military to drain massive amounts of manpower and resources just guarding vulnerable tracks. By 1918, they pushed into Syria and helped destroy the remaining Ottoman forces.

Arab leaders took up arms based on written pledges from the British government promising a unified, independent Arab kingdom stretching from Syria to Yemen after the war. However, behind their backs, Britain and France drafted the secret 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement. Once the Ottoman Empire fell, the Allied powers betrayed their promises, partitioning the Middle East into French and British colonial mandates and setting the stage for decades of modern conflict.

4. Yugoslav Partisans and Tito Resistance to Axis Forces

The brutal Axis occupations of East Asia, North Africa, and Europe during World War II encouraged mass resistance among occupied populations. When Germany, Italy, Bulgaria, and Hungary carved up the Balkans and sought to break up Yugoslavia, they created a massive resistance movement that undermined Axis control. The Yugoslav Partisan Army, led by Josip Broz Tito, became one of the most successful insurgent movements of the Second World War.

Following their seizure of Yugoslavia, several Axis nations broke up Yugoslavia while creating puppet governments in Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia, and elsewhere in the region. The brutality of the Axis occupiers not only reopened sectarian divisions; it also led to large numbers of Yugoslavs to resist. Tito, the leader of the Yugoslav Communist Party, began organizing people into a coalition of resistance groups. They fought against Serbian and Croatian collaborator militias as well as the Serbian Royalist Chetniks, who also despised the Axis occupiers.

Throughout the war, Tito’s Partisans fought the Axis armies and the Chetniks in a series of brutal clashes. They withstood repeated offensives and grew to over 650,000 men and women by 1945. Allied support proved crucial in ensuring they could dominate rival factions’ struggle. Cornered against the freezing Neretva River by 150,000 Axis troops, Tito’s forces faced annihilation while transporting 4,000 wounded partisans. In a desperate stroke of tactical deception, Tito ordered his engineers to blow up the main railway bridge. Believing the Partisans had abandoned the crossing, German commanders redirected their forces. Overnight, Partisan engineers constructed a makeshift footbridge over the destroyed spans, allowing 20,000 fighters and all the wounded to slip past the encirclement.

In May 1944, Nazi command launched Operation Rösselsprung, dropping elite SS paratroopers directly onto Tito’s mountain headquarters in the Bosnian town of Drvar to capture or kill him. While Partisan bodyguards fought to the last man outside his cave, Tito climbed through a hidden chute in the back wall, scrambled up a cliff, and escaped under heavy enemy fire.

By the time the Soviets invaded Yugoslavia, the Partisans became Yugoslavia’s regular military and enabled Tito to become the head of state after the war. Unlike many other partisan movements in WWII, Tito’s army had access to heavy weapons from the Western Allies, meaning that they could launch major offensives against Axis forces and the Chetniks.

5. Viet Minh Victory at Dien Bien Phu

Tito’s accomplishments in defeating the Axis in Yugoslavia during WWII were mirrored in the French colony of Indochina by Ho Chi Minh and his fellow communists of the League for Independence of Vietnam. Ho was a longtime Communist who failed to achieve Vietnamese statehood at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Afterwards, he began forming an underground movement aimed at overthrowing French colonial rule and creating a communist republic. His plans were put on hold by Japan’s conquest of Indochina.

During the Second World War, Ho and his comrades organized a militia in the jungles in northern Vietnam to fight the French and Japanese forces. He had support from the US, which wanted the Japanese out of southern Asia entirely. When the war ended, the Viet Minh began fighting the returning French authorities. Lacking heavy weapons, they launched a jungle-based insurgency. Ho aimed to sap France’s strength until his army, known as the Viet Minh, could overwhelm the French forces. By 1950, this plan was working as the People’s Republic of China and the USSR began providing substantial aid to the Viet Minh.

Ho’s military commander, Vo Nguyen Giap, began launching major offensives against French forces. His most successful operation was besieging the French Army garrison in the Dien Bien Phu valley. French commanders deliberately set up a heavily fortified air-land base deep in a remote, ringed valley, confident the Viet Minh could never move heavy artillery over the surrounding jungle mountains. Giap had over 250,000 Viet Minh soldiers and civilians dismantled heavy 105mm howitzers and anti-aircraft guns, manually dragging them up sheer mountain trails using ropes, pulleys, and reinforced push-bikes. They dug the artillery into concealed, bomb-proof bunkers on the high ground, looking directly down into the French positions. When the Viet Minh barrage opened on March 13, 1954, the French were caught in total shock.

In four months, the Viet Minh destroyed a French force of 15,000 men and strengthened their hand at the negotiating table in Geneva. By 1954, French forces vacated Vietnam, leaving behind two Vietnamese states, including Ho’s communist republic in North Vietnam. North Vietnamese forces would eventually defeat South Vietnam and reunite in 1975 after ill-fated American military intervention in the Vietnam War.

6. Soviet Afghan War and the Defeat of the Red Army

In December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support the faltering communist government and suppress the Mujahideen insurgency. This marked the USSR’s only military intervention outside Europe and coincided with the decline of communism in the Eastern Bloc. Approximately 100,000 Soviet troops occupied major Afghan cities, leading to intense and prolonged conflict with Mujahideen fighters.

The war, lasting nearly a decade, resulted in the deaths of around one million people and left Afghanistan in ruins. Despite overwhelming firepower, the Soviets failed to crush the different Mujahideen bands, who operated with outside support and had sanctuaries in Pakistan or Iran. By using the terrain and taking advantage of the weakness of the Soviet Army’s Afghan partner force, the Mujahideen was able to inflict heavy losses on the communist forces.

The Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989 precipitated a power vacuum, leading to civil unrest and the eventual rise of the Taliban in 1996. This conflict significantly strained the Soviet economy and military, contributing to the USSR’s collapse in 1991.

The invasion had profound long-term effects, destabilizing the region and fostering conditions that led to the rise of extremist groups. Unlike the postwar insurgencies such as the Baltic Forest Brothers in Eastern Europe against Soviet forces, the Mujahideen benefited from several advantages that made them almost impossible to defeat. When the Taliban used the same tactics against the NATO coalition later on, they managed to take back power from the Western-backed government in Kabul in 2021.

Nearly two centuries later, the Texas Revolution and Mexican-American War are often grouped together as a single event in the expansion of the United States. This association, however, is mostly a fallacy. Although they are inherently connected, each conflict exhibits distinct differences. While the Texas Revolution and Mexican-American War share overlapping features in terms of geography and the political and military leaders involved, the two conflicts were caused by different catalysts and resulted in separate outcomes for the United States and Mexico.

Historical Context

The historical contexts of the United States, Mexico, and Texas in the decades preceding the Texas Revolution and Mexican-American War present a complex web of nationalist movements. For the United States, the early 19th century represented a time when the country largely managed to rid itself of the threat of foreign invasion.

Despite formally achieving independence from Britain in the late 18th century after the American Revolutionary War, the United States continued to experience harassment from the British with the continued occupation of forts in the northern United States, the impressment of American sailors, and restrictions on American trade.

These grievances led to the War of 1812, and after an intense struggle on multiple fronts, the Treaty of Ghent restored the prewar status quo for the United States and British Canada. By fostering closer relations with Britain, the United States had the opportunity to pursue economic development and territorial expansion. American expansion, guided by the idea of Manifest Destiny, threatened Mexican territories towards the south and west.

During this same period, Mexico was in its own struggle for independence from Spain. After a decade of hostilities, Spain recognized Mexican independence in 1821. Less than 15 years later, Texas, then part of Mexico, sought its own freedom. While Mexico attempted to maintain control of Texas, its northern neighbor aggressively sought expansion into Texas as well as

the Mexican territories of California and New Mexico. These respective struggles led to armed conflict through the Texas Revolution in the mid-1830s and the Mexican-American War a decade later.

Causes of the Texas Revolution

Following Mexico’s independence from Spanish colonizers, the newly independent country encouraged American settlers to migrate into Texas to foster population growth, economic development, and offer protection from Native American tribes. While Mexico required settlers to adhere to local religious and legal codes, Americans were incentivized to settle in Texan towns through the empresario system. By 1834, the American settlers had outnumbered local Mexicans and sought to achieve independence from Mexican rule.

The challenges of integrating American settlers into Texas were clear from the outset. Americans, for example, were largely English-speakers and Protestants, while Mexican citizens who were primarily Spanish-speaking Catholics. Moreover, American settlers who were accustomed to state autonomy and a weak federal government resented the centralized nature of the Mexican state. Settlers from the north were additionally unhappy when the Mexican government imposed strict trade and land restrictions that reduced the autonomy of local communities.

A final frustration of Texas’ new inhabitants arose when Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna abolished the federalist Constitution of 1824. The document, largely supported by Texas residents for its economic freedoms, the right to representation, and local autonomy, was replaced by the Seven Laws Constitution, which strengthened the central government’s powers. While not adopted until 1836, the gradual centralization of power in Mexico led to the Battle of Gonzales, marking the start of the Texas Revolution on October 2, 1835. Figures including Davy Crockett and James Bowie jumped to defend Texas in resulting skirmishes.

Outcomes of the Texas Revolution

After six months of fierce clashes including the Siege of Bexar, the Siege of the Alamo, the Goliad Massacre, the Texas Revolution came to an end following Texan victory at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836. General Santa Anna was captured during the battle and recognized the independence of the Republic of Texas in exchange for his freedom. Under its first president, Sam Houston, Texas laid claim to a vast expanse of land including parts of the modern-day American states of New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming in addition to Texas itself. While Texan citizens sought to exploit the newly acquired land, its official borders proved uncertain and required further negotiation, which presented significant challenges.

As a nascent country without established governance or resources, Texas struggled to properly achieve its citizens’ visions of autonomy. Economic volatility, the failure to obtain international recognition, and ongoing violent skirmishes with Native American and Mexican populations disrupted Texas’ ability to thrive. As a result, many Texans were in favor of becoming part of the United States.

While many American political leaders were keen to annex Texas, the process took nearly a decade to complete due to domestic and international considerations. While the Texas Revolution was successful, the new Mexican government that assumed power after Santa Anna’s fall did not recognize Texan independence, and as such American annexation would be seen as an act of war. Debates about slavery within the United States and overseas influence from France and Britain designed to inhibit American expansion all served to prevent the immediate annexation of Texas.

Annexation of Texas and Resulting Border Disputes

In November 1844, Democratic candidate James K. Polk won the presidential election after running a campaign vowing to annex Texas. This encouraged incumbent President John Tyler to work with Congress to pass a Texas annexation bill prior to Polk’s inauguration. On December 29, 1845, Texas was formally admitted to the Union as the 28th state. The move immediately stirred backlash from Mexico. Worried about growing American influence, Mexico interpreted the annexation as the illegal seizure of a rebellious province.

Disputes over Texas’ boundaries further heightened tensions between Mexico and the United States. After integrating Texas into its union, the United States recognized the Rio Grande River as the state’s southern boundary. Mexico, however, recognized the Nueces River 100 miles to the north as the frontier.

In response to the border dispute, President Polk sought a diplomatic solution and dispatched Louisiana attorney and future senator John Slidell to Mexico as an envoy to negotiate a solution to the Texas dispute and to offer the purchase of New Mexico and California from Mexico for $30 million. When the Mexican government refused to meet with Slidell, Polk provocatively sent American troops to the disputed border region.

Polk’s intentions were met on April 25, 1846, when Mexican forces opened fire on United States soldiers, an incident now known as the Thornton Affair. After accusing the Mexican troops of “shed[ding] American blood on American soil,” the president secured congressional authorization to declare war against Mexico over two weeks later.

The Mexican-American War: Battles in Texas

While the Mexican-American War began nearly ten years after the Texas Revolution, the two conflicts share Texas as a common battleground. After the Thornton Affair, several military engagements took place in the disputed region. For example, at the Battle of Palo Alto, General Zachary Taylor led American troops against Mexican forces under General Mariano Arista in the first major engagement of the war. On May 8, 1846, Taylor’s effective deployment of his maneuverable light artillery enabled the United States to achieve a decisive victory despite being heavily outnumbered.

The following day, Taylor led the pursuit of the retreating Mexicans and engaged them at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, where the reinforced Mexican Army was once again defeated. The exchange forced the Mexican troops to withdraw to the opposite side of the Rio Grande, leaving behind their weapons and supplies. These two successes allowed the United States to relieve the ongoing Siege of Fort Texas, repelling the Mexican assault.

The battlefields of Texas not only gave opportunities for American troops to gain experience and raise morale before embarking on operations deeper into Mexico, but General Taylor exploited the accolades he earned for his victories by successfully running for president in 1848. Although he had survived many hardships on campaign, Taylor died in July 1850 at the age of 65, less than two years into his term.

Mexican-American War Outcomes

After the United States sealed its victory in the Mexican-American War by capturing Mexico City, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February 2, 1848. The agreement gave the United States 525,000 square miles of new territories including all or part of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, and Texas. While Mexico received $15 million in compensation, the Texan border dispute was also resolved in the United States’ favor by placing its southern border on the Rio Grande.

While these arrangements fulfilled the United States’ desire for expansion towards the Pacific coast, the outcomes of the Mexican-American War were less beneficial to other populations in North America. Mexican families faced the dilemma of relocating within Mexico’s newly appointed borders or choosing to remain in their homes as full American citizens. The large number who remained behind have continued to influence society and culture of the region to the present day.

Simultaneously, the war left Native American tribes vulnerable to American settlers headed west, forcing them out of their ancestral lands. In the decades following the Mexican-American War, the California Gold Rush and subsequent settlement resulted in Native Americans being dispossessed of large tracts of land. The provocative American actions which led to the conflict and the negative impact on Native Americans following the war have contributed to the war’s controversial legacy in the present day.

When President Theodore Roosevelt brokered the Treaty of Portsmouth between Russia and Japan in 1905, it established America and Japan as major actors in Asia. While Japan achieved most of its political objectives in the treaty, Roosevelt’s refusal to meet Japan’s demands for reparations from Russia fueled increased rivalry between Tokyo and Washington which led to conflict in the Pacific during the Second World War.

The Russo-Japanese War

After years of competition over control of critical ports and waterways in Manchuria and Korea, the Russo-Japanese War broke out in February 1904. Russia believed that it was a superior power and that an Asian country like Japan was not capable of defeating a European power in battle. For the government in Tokyo, this war was about showing the world how Japan was a force to be reckoned with on the international stage. It started with a major naval attack on the port of Port Arthur, crippling the Russian Pacific Fleet before blockading it within the harbor.

Subsequently, Japanese forces landed in Manchuria or marched from their bases in Korea to assault Russian forces. Russia mobilized troops from garrisons throughout the empire to stop the Japanese advance. Notwithstanding Russia’s calls for assistance from other European empires, many of them had no problem with Japan defeating Russia. Russian forces were poorly led and less trained than their enemies, who modeled their army after the Prussians and their navy after the British. Steadily, the Japanese pushed Russian forces out of much of Manchuria.

After the defeat of the Russian army at Mukden (present-day Shenyang, Liaoning Province) and the capture of Port Arthur by Japan, Tsar Nicholas II played his last major card by ordering much of his Atlantic and Baltic fleets to the Far East to confront the Japanese navy in the Sea of Japan. Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō attacked and destroyed much of the Russian Fleet at the straits of Tsushima in May 1905, compelling the Russians to seek peace.

American Relations With Japan and Russia Before the War

The United States had long sought close ties with both Russia and Japan in its efforts to play a role in the future of East Asia. American policymakers were reluctant to enter into entanglements in Europe or Asia with any major actor but did seek to project American strength in the region. Both countries were seen as benevolent trading partners and friends of America’s interests in the region and enjoyed good relations with Washington on the eve of the war.

As a result of Russia’s support for the Union in the American Civil War and America’s support of Russia during the Crimean War, Moscow and Washington were amicable. Russia had been willing to sell Alaska to the United States in 1867 and did not yet see America as a major competitor to its interests. Both countries sought to be taken seriously on the world stage. However, ties became slightly strained as a result of Russia’s autocratic government and antisemitic pogroms against Jewish populations.

When US Navy Commodore Matthew Perry sailed into Japan to open the country to international trade in 1853-54, he helped turn Japan into a modernized empire. Many Japanese elites saw the United States as a role model. Theodore Roosevelt was impressed with the country’s modernization program and backed Tokyo’s territorial ambitions. During the war, the US officially remained neutral, but businessman Jacob Schiff gave Japan a wartime loan because of antisemitism in Russia. Tokyo, in turn, supported America’s land acquisitions in Asia until the Second World War broke out.

The US Government’s Interests in East Asia

As part of America’s efforts to become a world power, the United States began to undertake major military operations in East Asia in the late 19th century. After occupying Hawai’i and other islands in the Pacific, the US began expanding into Asia when it attacked the Spanish garrison in the Philippines in 1898. After defeating the Spaniards, the US military proceeded to fight a multi-year counterinsurgency against Philippine nationalists opposed to foreign rule. Both Japan and Russia backed America’s position at the time.

While America fought in the Philippines, US forces landed in China as part of an international force to lift the Siege of Peking. Boxer rebels, opposed to foreign involvement in China’s affairs, attacked foreign legations in the capital. After hard fighting and marching, the eight-nation coalition, which included both Russian and Japanese troops, arrived at the city in 1900. They successfully drove off the Boxers and saved the city. The American occupation forces remained in place for another year.

By undertaking actions like this, the United States showed itself to be an effective actor in the region that was willing to take risks to make itself a great power. Washington began to fear that its actions were making other powers jealous and therefore sought to safeguard its possessions by pursuing amicable relations with other regional actors. In accordance with his Big Stick Policy, President Roosevelt offered to mediate between the Russians and Japanese in 1905.

Starting the Peace Talks

While the Russian army and navy had been crippled by the conflict, the war had been costly for Japan and the imperial treasury was close to bankruptcy. As a result, both Russia and Japan accepted Roosevelt’s offer of mediation in the summer of 1905. The Japanese sent Baron Kaneko Kentarō to meet with the Americans, while the Russians sent Count Sergei Witte, the veteran statesman and former finance minister. Both Witte and Kaneko met at Roosevelt’s private estate at Sagamore Hill.

Roosevelt was a practitioner of personal diplomacy and he sought to size up both men. Witte understood how dire Russia’s predicament was. He pushed the tsar to make significant territorial concessions so that Russian troops could be redeployed to suppress the Revolution of 1905 that had broken out in the wake of the disastrous war. Tokyo was struggling economically too but had the military advantage and enjoyed broader international support. Kaneko was able to use his longstanding friendship with Roosevelt and other American officials to his benefit.

After the initial round of talks at Sagamore Hill, the main conference moved to Portsmouth, Maine. This location ensured less media scrutiny than if the walks were conducted in Washington. At this point, Witte was joined by Baron Roman von Rosen while Japan was represented by Baron Jutaro Komura and Kogoro Takahira. The atmosphere was generally cordial and the US State Department played an important role in keeping both parties talking. However, several major issues proved difficult to negotiate.

Main Issues at Portsmouth

When both delegations presented their proposals around borders and control of Manchuria, several sticking points came up. Both Japan and Russia demanded sovereignty over Sakhalin island, which Japan had seized by force during the war. Even though the island did not feature much in Russia’s strategic planning, Witte still insisted that the island was Russian as a matter of pride. Japan asserted its right of conquest and argued that Russia did not need the island.

Additionally, Japan demanded that Russia pay an indemnity for the war in order to address the financial crisis at home. Japanese negotiators thought that the Japanese public would only accept an agreement if Russia agreed to pay. Russia, which was in no position to pay the indemnity that Japan was asking for, declined and insisted that they would not agree to a treaty with an indemnity clause.

These issues held up the status of the talks. Both countries feared major unrest in their home countries if they did not get a deal that was acceptable. The stubbornness of the negotiating teams on these issues caused Roosevelt’s team to fear that their mediation would fail. Therefore, they changed tactics. The president began to encourage Russia to accept territorial losses, which he knew Russia could not take back militarily. At the same time, he pushed Japan to drop its indemnity demands. This new push provided the momentum for the final agreement.

Final Agreement and Subsequent Developments

On September 5, 1905 Russia and Japan finally signed the Treaty of Portsmouth. In accordance with Roosevelt’s wishes, Tokyo gained control over the southern half of Sakhalin island and Port Arthur. Additionally, Russia recognized Japanese control over Korea and south Manchuria. In exchange, Russia was not forced to pay any war indemnity, and both countries agreed to withdraw their military forces from most of Manchuria.

Despite America’s resounding success in mediating the agreement, trouble arose soon after the signing of the treaty. In Japan, the heavy physical and economic toll led to much hardship and the lack of a Russian indemnity led to riots. Some Japanese militarists believed that they needed to continue the war and not worry about what Western countries thought about their position in the world. Japanese officials thought that America was a close friend and did not believe that Roosevelt supported them as sufficiently as they hoped. This caused a gradual worsening of relations in the lead-up to WWII.

The end of the Russo-Japanese War was not enough to put an end to the 1905 Revolution in Russia, and in October Witte encouraged Tsar Nicholas to announce political concessions. However, the return of Russian troops from the Far East did allow the government to pacify lesser disturbances the following year.

Tsar Nicholas resented Roosevelt’s sympathy with Japan and Russian mistrust of American intentions increased over time. Nonetheless, Roosevelt’s mediation demonstrated that the United States was a key player on the international stage, and his efforts in brokering the Treaty of Portsmouth earned him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize.

Interestingly, the medieval period in Britain begins with a battle. In 1066 CE, the Battle of Hastings marked the beginning of Norman rule and a new era in Britain. Medieval warfare in Britain was often used as a tool to implement feudalism and maintain centralized power.

The period from 1066 to 1485 CE was a dynamic era of medieval warfare, marked by a number of important battles that were instrumental in political and territorial affairs. The Medieval Period in Britain both began and ended with a battle: the Battle of Bosworth Field, which marked the rise of the Tudor Dynasty.

1. The Battle of Hastings (1066)

• Date: October 14, 1066
• Combatants: Normans vs. Anglo-Saxons
• Key leaders: William, Duke of Normandy vs. Harold Godwinson
• Location: East Sussex, England
• Outcome: Norman victory; Harold Godwinson was killed

October 14, 1066 CE, marked the start of Norman rule over England after they ousted the Anglo-Saxons. The Battle of Hastings involved the forces of William, Duke of Normandy, often referred to as William the Conqueror, and the army of Harold Godwinson, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England.

King Edward the Confessor left no clear heir when he died in January 1066. You will see throughout history that this was a common problem in England. While Harold Godwinson was crowned king, he immediately faced a contesting claim from William of Normandy. William claimed that Edward had promised him the throne as far back as 1051. This dispute set the stage for the subsequent Norman invasion.

The battle took place near the present-day town of Battle, East Sussex. The fighting lasted from morning until dusk. William used innovative tactics, new to the English Saxons, which included feigned retreats that drew out and broke the English shield wall. This tactic has been attributed as the leading factor in the Norman victory. The end of the battle was signaled by Harold’s death. The famous Bayeux Tapestry depicts his death as an arrow to the eye. Despite this artistic representation of events, historians regularly debate the details of his death.

William’s victory fundamentally altered England and its aristocracy. Anglo-Saxon lords were replaced with Norman ones, and a new system of governance was introduced. Norman-French started to replace Old English as William was crowned King of England on Christmas Day 1066.

2. The Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297)

• Date: September 11, 1297
• Combatants: Scottish vs. English
• Key leaders: William Wallace & Andrew Murray vs. John de Warrene & Hugh de Cressingham
• Location: River Forth in Stirling, Scotland
• Outcome: Decisive Scottish victory

A battle made famous by Hollywood in the film Braveheart, the Battle of Stirling Bridge was fought on September 11, 1297 CE. This was one of the largest battles during the First War of Scottish Independence. William Wallace and Andrew Murray led Scottish forces to a decisive victory against English forces led by John de Warrene, the Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham.

Edward I of England wanted to assert control over Scotland after the death of the Scottish queen in 1290. The people of Scotland disagreed, and this disagreement culminated in the battle at Stirling Bridge.

The English were at a disadvantage. They were forced to cross a narrow bridge over the River Forth, and the Scots made sure to capitalize on this moment. This narrow path limited how much the English troops could move. The Scots could then hold back their forces until most of the English had crossed the river. Once they crossed, Wallace and Murray launched a surprise attack, cutting off the English’s access to the bridge. The English were left vulnerable and disorganized, resulting in a Scottish victory.

This victory boosted Scottish morale and cemented Wallace’s reputation as a symbol of the resistance. This eventually made him a great target for the English crown. However, this defeat forced Edward I to reconsider his strategies in Scotland, and Scottish resistance only grew.

3. The Battle of Bannockburn (1314)

• Date: June 23–24, 1314
• Combatants: Scottish vs. English
• Key leaders: Robert the Bruce vs. Edward II
• Location: Bannock Burn near Stirling, Scotland
• Outcome: Decisive Scottish victory, confirming their independence

The Battle of Bannockburn was fought from June 23 to 24, 1314. While the Battle of Stirling Bridge was a decisive victory, the Battle of Bannockburn finally confirmed Scottish independence and solidified Robert the Bruce’s place as a legendary figure of national pride in Scotland.

By 1314, the tensions between Scotland and England had escalated considerably. Edward II now controlled England and wanted to assert control over Scotland. The siege of Stirling Castle became a focal point of these tensions and set the stage for a great battle. The Scots were led by Robert the Bruce, who aimed to lift the siege and simultaneously assert their independence. They faced an English army that was significantly larger and better equipped than their own.

Yet again, the Scots employed the terrain to their advantage and forced the English into a cramped and marshy battlefield at Bannockburn near Stirling. This tactical advantage hampered the English forces’ movement and effectiveness.

The Scottish forces were organized into schiltrons. This special formation moved infantry into dense groups with outward-facing spears. They were highly effective against cavalry. With these tactical formations and their expert use of the terrain, the Scots could decisively defeat the English.

The victory at Bannockburn ended English claims over Scotland and established Robert the Bruce as the uncontested ruler of an independent Scotland. The legacy of this battle extends beyond the immediate victory. The Battle of Bannockburn became a symbol of Scottish resilience and a classic example of tactical ingenuity in medieval warfare.

4. The Battle of Crécy (1346)

• Date: August 26, 1346
• Combatants: English vs. French
• Key leaders: King Edward III vs. King Philip VI
• Location: Crécy-en-Ponthieu, France
• Outcome: Overwhelming English victory

The Battle of Crécy, on August 26th, 1346, was a rather significant conflict during the Hundred Years’ War, a series of conflicts in which the English monarchs sought to assert their claims to French territories. In this case, King Edward III of England landed his army in Normandy. From here, he launched a campaign of rapid movement and scorched-earth tactics across northern France. This campaign culminated in the Battle of Crécy at Crécy-en-Ponthieu. It was here that Edward held a strong defensive position against the French army led by King Philip VI.

Edward’s army was very good at using their longbows to their benefit, and the longbowmen formed the backbone of his tactical approach. Edward positioned his archers in a place that would capitalize on their long range and rapid fire.

The French were hampered by muddy terrain and were never able to break through the English defensive formations. The English won an overwhelming victory here. The Battle of Crécy also marked a pivotal evolution in medieval warfare. From this point forward, you can see the decline in the dominance of heavy cavalry in medieval warfare and a move toward the heavy use of infantry, especially those with longbows. Medieval warfare shifted from melee combat to a greater emphasis on ranged weaponry.

5. The Battle of Neville’s Cross (1346)

• Date: October 17, 1346
• Combatants: English vs. Scottish
• Key leaders: English defensive force (under Edward III’s orders) vs. King David II
• Location: Near Durham, England
• Outcome: Conclusive English victory; the Scottish king was captured

While deeply involved in the Hundred Years’ War, England was also facing the Second War of Scottish Independence. The Battle of Neville’s Cross, fought on October 17, 1346, occurred near Durham, England.

Because of the conflict between England and France in the Hundred Years’ War, France allied with Scotland. Through the Auld Alliance, France encouraged the Scottish King David II to open up a northern front against England. France wanted English resources diverted to the Scottish border so that they would focus less on the siege of Calais.

The Scottish army began by rampaging through Northumberland but was eventually caught by an English force near Durham. The English army was smaller but still held the advantage of higher ground. The English forces were to disperse the Scottish forces through fierce attacks by English longbowmen.

Not only did England win a conclusive victory, but the Scottish king was captured. Scottish power was weakened, and the English very quickly exploited this. After Neville’s Cross, England gained stronger control over southern Scotland.

6. The Battle of Agincourt (1415)

• Date: October 25, 1415
• Combatants: English vs. French
• Key leaders: Henry V vs. Charles d’Albret
• Location: Near Agincourt, France
• Outcome: English victory

The Hundred Years’ War was a constant back-and-forth between England and France, very typical of medieval warfare. On October 25, 1415, Henry V of England was campaigning to assert his claim over the French throne and invaded Normandy. However, the English army had been greatly weakened by battle and disease. Henry still decided to push forward and march for Calais, where he was intercepted by a larger French force near Agincourt. The French forces were led by Charles d’Albret, the Constable of France.

This is another one of those moments in history where, despite the French having the numbers, they were ill-suited for this particular battle. Their heavy cavalry and knights could not perform properly on the muddy, enclosed battlefield. This limited their movement and their effectiveness. The English were weakened, but they were able to exploit their longbowmen’s reach and mobility, which meant they could inflict severe losses on the French forces. Henry had his archers flanked by stakes and positioned them to maximize their impact, which played a central role in the English victory.

Agincourt was devastating for the French. They suffered significant losses, including many of their nobility. So, they not only lost this battle, but it also weakened their feudal military structure. For England, this victory once again showcased the power of their longbowmen, a defining element of English medieval warfare, and simultaneously boosted national morale. The loss at Agincourt could be directly linked to Henry’s success in France, which led to the Treaty of Troyes recognizing him as heir to the French throne.

7. The Battle of Towton (1461)

• Date: March 29, 1461
• Combatants: Yorkists vs. Lancastrians
• Key leaders: Edward IV (Yorkist) vs. Loyalists of Henry VI (Lancastrian)
• Location: Towton, North Yorkshire, England
• Outcome: A crushing victory for the Yorkists

The War of the Roses was a continuous, prolonged affair between the houses of York and Lancaster, who disagreed over who should rightfully rule England. The Battle of Towton on March 29, 1461, represents a brutal high point in British medieval warfare and is said to be the largest and deadliest battle ever fought on English ground. The combatants encountered each other in the midst of a vicious snowstorm, which added to the battle’s carnage.

Yorkist leader Edward IV confronted the Lancastrians, the loyalists of Henry VI. The nobles had been agitated by major players like Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (the Kingmaker).

The Yorkists came back to the successful deployment of longbowmen. Lord Falkenburg, a Yorkist leader, used the storm’s wind and snow to his advantage. He instructed his archers not to shoot a single arrow until he gave the command, which came after the Lancastrians had spent the majority of their shots. After a long period of long-range combat, the battle came down to short, fierce hand-to-hand fighting.

The Yorkists achieved a crushing victory, which immediately led to Edward IV’s ascension to the throne. The Lancastrian cause was virtually wiped out when their leader, Henry VI, went into hiding, and many Lancastrian nobles were lost on the field. The Battle of Towton took the lives of more Englishmen than any other battle during the War of the Roses, and perhaps in all of English history.

8. The Siege of Orleans (1428–1429)

• Date: 1428–1429
• Combatants: English & Burgundian troops vs. French
• Key leaders: Earl of Salisbury (English) vs. Charles VII & Joan of Arc (French)
• Location: Orleans, France
• Outcome: French victory; the siege was lifted

In 1428, the English could boast of their alliances with Burgundian troops, and they controlled most of northern France, including Paris. The city of Orleans represented a vital crossroads leading to the South of France.

The Earl of Salisbury, later Duke of Suffolk, mobilized his English troops and besieged Orleans, the last important stronghold held by Charles VII of France. Then Joan of Arc arrived in April 1429. She brought fresh inspiration and led several assaults against strategic English positions. Her presence was said to have revitalized the French forces, empowering them to overrun key English fortifications.

The siege of Orleans lasted almost a year, from October 12, 1428, to May 8, 1429. It ended in a decisive French victory, forcing the English to retreat and marking a crucial turning point in the Hundred Years’ War.

9. The Battle of Bosworth Field (1485)

• Date: August 22nd, 1485
• Combatants: House of Lancaster vs. House of York
• Key leaders: Henry Tudor vs. King Richard III
• Location: Near Ambion Hill, Leicestershire, England
• Outcome: Tudor victory; Richard III killed in battle

The Battle of Bosworth Field was the final important engagement of the War of the Roses. It marked a shift in the control of the throne from the House of York to the House of Lancaster. Henry Tudor, who would become Henry VII, ended the reign of Richard III and the Plantagenet Dynasty’s centuries-long hold on the English crown.

When Richard III controversially took the throne in 1483, he plunged England into instability—creating an opening for the unlikely Lancastrian claimant Henry Tudor to rise.

Henry Tudor landed in Wales in 1485, gathered the forces he needed, and marched to London. His forces were outnumbered, but Henry Tudor was intelligent and strategic. Richard III either drew great courage from his greater numbers or was incredibly bold in general. He led a direct charge aiming to kill Henry Tudor himself, effectively ending the civil war once and for all. His charge ultimately failed when one of his largest supporters, the Stanleys, declared for Henry mid-battle. Richard was killed in the fray.

With Richard’s death, Henry Tudor ascended the English throne as Henry VII and united the warring factions through his marriage to Elizabeth of York. Together, they founded the Tudor Dynasty under a combined Lancastrian and York flag. This rise of the Tudor Dynasty and Henry’s marriage is seen as the end of the Medieval Period in England.

Operation Steinbock was a bombing campaign conducted by the Luftwaffe (German air force) from January 1944 to May 1944. The operation was a result of Hitler’s personal orders for the Luftwaffe to attack Great Britain, responding to the joint sustained Allied bombing campaign against Germany. By 1943, the Luftwaffe no longer ruled Europe’s skies. Weakened but not broken, it fought to keep heavy Allied bombers from Germany. 

How and Why Hitler Launched Germany’s Final Blitz on London

Hitler ordered this Operation in retaliation for the Allied bombing raids and to prove that Germany could strike back. He also wanted to boost civilian morale on the home front. Since late 1942, the growing Allied raids hit German cities day and night, flattening whole cities.

Hitler ordered Operation Steinbock to go ahead in late 1943, furious at the damage Allied bombers were causing in Germany. However, assembling the bombers took time to ensure a high serviceability rate. By early 1944, bombers pulled from different theaters stood ready. The first raid of Operation Steinbock occurred on the night of January 21-22, 1944, when 229 bombers attacked London. The raids continued through May 1944 with varying degrees of success. London was not always the primary target, but it was considered the most important.

Commanded by the mercurial Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, the Luftwaffe carried out the retaliatory raids. Several Luftwaffe bomber wings, called Kampfgeschwaders, assembled at French bases nearer to England. These bombers represented the majority of the Luftwaffe’s remaining waning bomber strength. 

Generalleutnant Josef Kammhuber commanded Operation Steinbock. He led the Luftwaffe’s night fighters in his last command, trying different strategies to stop the Allied bombers. His mission required him to find ways to penetrate the very tough British air defenses.

How Operation Steinbock Earned the Nickname the “Baby Blitz”

This English-coined nickname referred to the Blitz of 1940-1941 on London. The original Blitz was much larger and more ferocious as the Luftwaffe made a maximum effort to gain aerial supremacy. This required condition would mean the Wehrmacht could invade England in “Operation Sealion” and knock Great Britain out of the war. The “Baby Blitz” never matched the sheer destruction of the original Blitz.

Prime British Targets of the 1944 German Air Raids 

For several reasons, the Luftwaffe targeted Greater London as the main focus of the retaliation. First, London possessed a symbolic value as Britain’s capital. The Germans hoped to demoralize the island nation’s population and sought to inflict the same economic and area damage the Allies had caused on Germany. London represented a strategic target as a central industrial and transportation hub. Other cities like Bristol, Sandwich, and Hull also were bombed. These cities were industrial or central hubs, and the Luftwaffe sought to enhance the operation’s impact.

The Luftwaffe Aircraft Deployed for Operation Steinbock

The Luftwaffe gathered at least six Kampfgeschwaders from Germany and different theaters. By late 1943, their strength numbered almost 500 planes. Most were twin-engine types, including the Junkers Ju-88 and 188s, Dornier Do-217s, Messerschmitt Me-410s, and single-engine Fw-190s. The Germans also used the He-177, a “twin engine” heavy bomber with joined engines driving one propeller. While an innovative design, the problem-plagued bomber surprisingly had a lower loss rate than the other types. 

As Operation Steinbock continued, German losses grew heavier. The 1944 Luftwaffe was not the deadly war machine of 1941. By the end of the operation in May 1944, the Luftwaffe had lost 329 planes or 70% of its operational strength. 

How Operation Steinbock Crippled the Luftwaffe 

Operation Steinbock’s losses crippled the Luftwaffe bomber wing. Many irreplaceable crew members were lost, too. Even poorly-trained crewmen were a desperately-needed resource. The drain on other theaters, like the Eastern Front, left those theaters with fewer resources. As more bombers were shot down, fewer were available to fight during Operation Overlord. After Operation Steinbock, no more large-scale bomber campaigns took place. Nazi Germany switched to V1 and V2 Wunderwaffe attacks.

Operation Steinbock failed for several reasons. British defenses had improved immensely by 1944 with innovations like radar-guided anti-aircraft guns, which exacted a substantial toll on enemy air power. Despite the number of raids, the strategic impact was minimal. By March, bomber squadrons had been transferred or were only focused on attacking D-Day preparations.

As the First World War engulfed the European continent, the conquered colonies of Europe’s imperial powers were dragged into the conflict. South West Africa, one of the German Empire’s most significant African territories, became the target of an audacious South African attack ordered by the British. However, both the South Africans and the Germans suffered internal revolts that would complicate the ensuing conflict. German forces also repeatedly clashed with Portuguese forces in neighboring Angola.

German South West Africa

German missionaries first visited what is known today as Namibia during the 1840s. Within the next few decades, German merchants established numerous settlements along the coast and placed them under the protection of the expanding German Empire. In 1884, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck designated the region as a German Protectorate. The following year, when the imperial European powers met in Berlin amid their rapid colonization of the African continent, South West Africa was formally recognized as German territory.

German settlers immigrated to South West Africa in the thousands, enticed by economic opportunities through agriculture and diamond mining.

However, while German settlers found prosperity in South West Africa, the region’s native inhabitants suffered greatly under Germany’s imperial regime. The local Nama and Herero peoples launched numerous uprisings against their German colonizers. The largest of which, lasting between 1904 and 1907, killed as many as 100,000 people. After the uprising had been crushed, the remaining Herero and Nama survivors were forced into concentration camps. Executions, human experimentation, beatings, starvation, and rampant disease resulted in the deaths of thousands of people. Officially recognized as a genocide by the United Nations in 1985, some historians have described the genocide of the Herero and Nama people as a precursor to the Holocaust.

The Importance of South West Africa

On July 28, 1914, Europe became engulfed by war. However, the European’s imperial appetites resulted in them maintaining considerable territory around the world. These territories would play a considerable role in the subsequent fighting. German colonial possessions were considerably fewer in number than many of the other European powers—its main territories being present-day Tanzania, Cameroon, and, of course, Namibia. In comparison, Great Britain commanded territories around the world, including India, Pakistan, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Kenya, Egypt, and, notably, South Africa. Due to the close proximity of German South West Africa to South Africa, this region became an important theater of fighting during the war.

A significant force of 5,000 German troops were stationed in South West Africa under the command of Joachim von Heydebreck. These troops had become highly experienced in colonial warfare during the fighting against the Herero and Nama. The British were concerned that this force could be redeployed to France, thus bolstering German forces in continental Europe.

South West Africa also provided an important naval base for German ships and hosted several important radio transmitters, which were used to coordinate attacks on British ships.

Early Fighting

On August 7, 1914, the British government sent a request to South African Prime Minister Louis Botha to invade German South West Africa. Botha agreed, and South African forces began mobilizing along the border.

South Africa devised an invasion plan consisting of three separate columns to attack various regions of the German colony. Firstly, “A Force” would land at Port Nolloth and attack the southern border, “B Force” under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Salomon Maritz, would invade from the east, and “C Force” under Colonel PS Beves would land on the west coast at Luderitz Bay with the support of the Royal Navy.

The three-pronged attack was initially successful, and South African forces advanced quickly. Key objectives were swiftly captured, with the Port of Luderitz being occupied on September 18.

However, South Africa’s progress was checked when the two forces met at the town of Sandfontein. The crucial supply point was first captured by A Force in mid-September 1914. From there, South African forces dispersed to capture nearby targets, leaving Sandfontein vulnerable. German forces launched a surprise attack against the greatly outnumbered South African garrison defending the town. Within hours the South Africans had surrendered.

The Maritz Revolt

The invasion of German South West Africa was met with great controversy and skepticism within South Africa, especially among the country’s Boer population. Between 1899 and 1902, the two Boer republics, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, fought a devastating war against the British, which resulted in the Boer republics being absorbed into the British Empire.

As a result, there was significant animosity between the Boers and their British imperial overlords. There was also a substantial number of Boers, who had fought against the British only a decade earlier, who were now part of the South African army. Understandably, these men were staunchly reluctant to fight on the orders of the British.

The Commander of B Force, Lieutenant-Colonel Salomon Maritz, revolted against South Africa and allied himself with the Germans along with his men. His actions would inspire a further 12,000 Boers to rebel against the British.

Martial law was declared by the South African government on October 12, 1914, as Boer forces occupied several towns and attempted to declare an independent Boer republic. Prime Minister Louis Botha immediately ceased the ongoing operation in German South West Africa and mustered a force of approximately 32,000 men to quash Maritz’s revolt.

The much larger government force quickly pushed back the Boers and, on January 24, were devastatingly repelled after attacking the town of Upington. The Boer forces officially surrendered on February 2, 1915.

Second South African Invasion

With the Maritz Revolt crushed, Louis Botha could now reorient his focus back to German South West Africa. However, this time, Botha ensured that only trusted, loyal officers were appointed to South Africa’s military leadership. A new attack plan was formed, this time intending for a more rapid advance on the capital, Windhoek.

Botha himself assumed command of the invasion, with the South African army split into four separate forces. Each force was tasked with attacking the German colony at different points along its border.

A few months prior to the second invasion, the German Commander Heydebreck died suddenly at the age of 53. His replacement, Victor Franke, greatly underestimated the capabilities of the South African forces. As a result, the South Africans made swift advances into German territory by March of 1915. By the end of the month, Botha and his force of 20,000 men had captured Riet and Jakkalswater. The next month, they captured the town of Kalkfontein in the south.

Baster Revolt

As the South Africans advanced further and further into their territory, the German colonials were faced with an internal revolt.

The Baster people are a mixed-race ethnic group that continues to inhabit present-day Namibia. The term “Baster” is derived from the Dutch word for “bastard.” From the onset of Germany’s occupation of the region, the Basters maintained relatively cordial relations with the colonials. Notably, a small contingent of Basters fought alongside the German colonial army and participated in the Herero and Nama genocide.

Upon the commencement of the First World War, the Germans attempted to mobilize all able-bodied Basters into their armed forces. However, this was met with great resistance from the Basters, who were reluctant to fight against the South Africans, with whom many shared ethnic and cultural similarities. As such, the Germans instead ordered Basters to guard South African prisoners of war.

The captain of the Baster forces, Cornelius Van Wyk, reportedly met Louis Botha of South Africa, with whom the Basters agreed to terms. They were to remain neutral against South Africa in return for gaining recognition and rights should South Africa take over the territory.

As the South Africans advanced, the Germans ordered the Basters and their prisoners of war to move further north. However, the Basters refused, and many defected against the Germans, with some even releasing their South African prisoners.

In retaliation, the Germans stated that the protection treaty signed between themselves and the Basters was now void and that the Basters were now to be considered hostile to Germany. The Basters offered to support South Africa militarily, but Louis Botha refused, stating that the fighting against Germany was a “white man’s war.”

The Baster forces regrouped at their final stronghold at Sam Khubis. On May 8, 1915, the stronghold was attacked by German colonial forces. However, the 800 Basters astoundingly repelled the colonialists. Every year, the Basters commemorate the Battle of Sam Khubis with a festival.

German Clashes With the Portuguese

While most of the fighting in South West Africa occurred between Germany and South Africa, Germany also engaged with Portuguese forces along its colony’s northern border with Angola, which was a Portuguese possession. However, Germany had long considered invading the territory and adding it to its colonial possessions in Africa.

Before Germany officially declared war on Portugal, which would later happen in 1916, German and Portuguese forces were involved in numerous small border clashes.

The first notable clash occurred in October 1914, when a column of German troops crossed into Portuguese territory. The column was attacked by Portuguese forces, resulting in the deaths of three German soldiers. In response, German forces attacked a fort in the town of Cuangar, killing all of the Portuguese soldiers stationed there.

The most significant of these border clashes occurred on December 18, 1915, when a force of 2,000 German soldiers attacked Portuguese positions at the town of Naulila. After losing approximately 70 men, the Portuguese were forced to retreat further north.

South African Victory

By May 1915, South Africa had continued to make considerable inroads into German territory. On May 21, 1915, the capital, Windhoek, was successfully captured by South Africa, who faced little resistance from the Germans. The German colonial Governor of South West Africa, Theodor Seitz, offered an armistice to Botha. However, the South African Prime Minister ambitiously wanted to incorporate the entirety of the German territory under South African control. Thus, the armistice agreement was ignored.

South African forces advanced further north until, on July 9, 1915, German forces officially surrendered. Responsibility for the administration of German South West Africa fell to South Africa. In 1920, the newly founded League of Nations granted South Africa an official mandate to govern the territory. South West Africa would remain under South Africa’s governance until March 21, 1990, when the territory became the independent nation of Namibia.

Though South Africa’s victory over Germany in South West Africa had relatively little impact on the overall outcome of the Great War, it did have a major influence on the future of the region. Notably, the incorporation of South West Africa into South Africa would lead to the South African Border War, a 23-year-long conflict between South Africa and the South West Africa People’s Organisation (SWAPO) independence movement. This conflict would also closely overlap with the Angolan Civil War, in which South Africa also played a considerable role.

Japan launched a surprise military strike on the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Over 2,400 Americans were killed, and numerous ships and aircraft were destroyed or damaged. Japan needed to neutralize the US’s military power in the Pacific so that they could achieve their expansionist goals. The US declared war on Japan after Pearl Harbor, and Nazi Germany declared war on the US a few days later as a preemptive move. But why did Pearl Harbor happen?

Why Did Pearl Harbor Happen? The Role of Imperial Japan

Pearl Harbor, “a date which will live in infamy,” did not happen for no reason; history does not unfold in a vacuum.

Imperial Japan wanted to expand its influence and control in Asia and the Pacific islands, as well as to secure resources like oil, rubber, and steel, which were necessary for their military. Thus, Japan invaded Manchuria, an area of present-day northeast China, in 1931 and turned it into a puppet state under its control. The region served as a starting base to invade the rest of China in 1937. The invasion was seen as an aggressive action and a violation of international law by Western nations.

Tensions between Japan and the United States were escalating in the early 1900s due to economic and trade agreements and Japan’s territorial expansions. The US had missionary and economic interests in China, and Japan’s invasion jeopardized American capitalist interests in China. Not only that, but it threatened the rest of the world’s equal access to trade with China granted by the “Open Door Policy,” a cornerstone of US policy in East Asia. Japan sought to control the entire region and disrupt diplomacy and trade with Western nations, and the US saw this as a great threat.

In an attempt to impede Japanese expansion, the US sanctioned Japan by freezing its assets and initiated an oil and natural resources embargo. Those tactics damaged Japan’s economy and set its military goals back because the country could not import the necessary materials for war manufacturing.

In the 1930s, Imperial Japan’s policies and colonial techniques matched, or at least complimented, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy’s expansionist goals, which prompted them to form an alliance called the Tripartite Pact.

The Tripartite Pact

In East Asia, World War II started before they signed the Tripartite Pact. Indeed, scholars point out that the date the war technically began should be pushed from Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, back to Japan’s full invasion of China on July 7, 1937. That invasion started the Second Sino-Japanese War and came after the conquering of Manchuria in 1931.

By then, Japan and Germany had already signed the Anti-Comnitern Act, an agreement directed against the Communist International (Comintern) and the Soviet Union. Then, on September 27, 1940, Japan, Germany, and Italy signed the Tripartite Pact. The new military alliance strengthened the connection between the three countries commonly known as the Axis Powers.

Their ultimate goals were to limit the power and reach of the United States, a common enemy of theirs, cooperate militarily, and support each other in territorial advances to build their respective empires. Additionally, there was a mutual defense clause stating that if any one of them was attacked, the others were to provide military, political, and economic support.

The Axis Powers aimed to dismantle the geopolitical map established by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. In the new world order envisioned by the three powers, Nazi Germany and Italy were to dominate Europe, and Japan was to dominate East Asia and the Pacific.

In response to the Tripartite Pact, President Roosevelt of the United States placed an embargo on iron, steel, and oil from Japan and seized Japanese assets in the US.

The Tripartite Pact discouraged the signatories from attacking the US, but it did not explicitly prevent them from doing so. Attacking the US would have resulted in retaliation by the US and its allies, which the Tripartite Pact signatories wished to avoid.

Japan had been trying to negotiate with the US to resolve their disputes because of the sanctions imposed by the American government, but the negotiations failed. Japan acted alone and did not inform Nazi Germany or Fascist Italy of its plans to attack Pearl Harbor in order to neutralize the US Pacific Fleet. The military leaders were even secretive about the plan within the Japanese Imperial government.

The Tripartite Pact did not mean that the signatories were true allies; it was more about mutual interests, but attacking the US was not everybody’s mutual interest.

Although surprised by the attack, Hitler hoped it would divert US attention away from Europe, and the Nazis declared war on the US on December 11, 1941.

The First Wave

The US Pacific Fleet was stationed at Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii, a US colony in the Pacific. The Japanese saw the fleet as an obstacle to their imperialist goals, and they needed to neutralize the US’s military power.

They had a narrow window of time to attack other islands in the Pacific after they attacked Pearl Harbor. If they did not cripple the US’s military power in Oahu, then the US would have time to thwart their expansionist goals; and they knew that it was a matter of time before military support was sent in after the attack, so they had to act quickly.

On December 7, 1941, before the attack began, the USS Condor, a US naval vessel, detected a Japanese submarine near Pearl Harbor in the early hours of the morning. Three hours later, the USS Ward, a Navy destroyer, sank a Japanese submarine attempting to enter Pearl Harbor.

Japanese aircraft had previously begun their flight towards Oahu from an aircraft carrier about 230 miles north. Once the mission was underway, they went radio silent. At 7:02 a.m., an army radar station at Opana Point noticed the incoming aircraft, but the report was dismissed because they were expecting US B-17 Bombers to arrive from California.

The First Wave began just before 8 am with torpedo bombers striking the ships in the harbor. The assault lasted thirty minutes. Japanese aircraft targeted US battleships and airfields on Oahu. The USS Oklahoma and USS Utah were hit, capsized, and sank. The USS West Virginia and USS California were damaged by the torpedoes, and the USS Arizona was bombed and sunk. Two air bases, Hickam and Wheeler Field, were bombed, and many aircraft were destroyed.

The Second Wave

The Second Wave began at 8:40 am, shortly after the first wave was finished, and lasted over an hour. In addition to targeting the ships in the water, Japanese forces also focused on the shipyards and docks. They bombed the USS Nevada, which had to beach itself in shallow water to avoid blocking the harbor. Airfields at Kaneohe Naval Air Station and Ewa Marine Corps Air Station were bombed, as well.

A total of 353 Japanese aircraft attacked Pearl Harbor. Japan lost 64 men, 29 planes, and five midget submarines. One naval officer was taken as a prisoner.

Four US battleships were sunk (the Arizona, Oklahoma, West Virginia, and California,) and four battleships were damaged (the Nevada, Tennessee, Maryland, and Pennsylvania). Three destroyers and three cruisers (both warships) were damaged, 188 aircraft were destroyed, and even more were damaged.

In total, 2,403 Americans were killed in the attack, including 68 civilians, and 1,178 were wounded. When the USS Arizona began sinking in flames, people began trying to rescue the crew members, but many were trapped and could not escape. There were 1,177 crew members who died on the USS Arizona alone, making it the most devastating ship loss of the attack. The Japanese bombs ignited the ammunition on board, which caused an explosion and a fire.

America’s Response to Pearl Harbor

Japan miscalculated the US’ capacity to rebuild its navy and its ability or willingness to retaliate. The hope that the US would seek to negotiate peace was one of the reasons why Pearl Harbor happened. However, the attack was not the discouragement or the demoralization that they hoped it would be for Americans, and it did not make the US want to settle on Japanese terms.

The attack also fueled anti-Japanese propaganda and rhetoric in the US and triggered the government to begin forcing Japanese-Americans into internment camps, similar to a concentration camp. Over 120,000 (or 90%) of all Japanese people living in America were put into camps, the vast majority of whom were born and raised in America as second or third-generation citizens.

After the attack, President Roosevelt addressed Congress and the country, asking for a declaration of war. The US declared war on Japan on December 8, officially entering World War II—the American government had been supplying military aid to the Allies up until that point. In the 30 days after the attack, about 134,000 Americans volunteered for the US military before the government instituted the draft. Hundreds of thousands more would volunteer in a show of patriotism, but some joined out of outrage and yearned to get revenge on the Japanese.

The war between the Allies and Japan is often referred to as the Pacific War or the Pacific Theater of WWII.

Why Did Pearl Harbor Happen? Japan in the Pacific Theater

After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan continued its expansionistic policy in East Asia. In 1941 and 1941, Japanese forces attacked the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island, Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaya, Thailand, the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), Burma (Myanmar), Rabaul (Papua New Guinea), and the Solomon Islands. Here is a timeline of Japan’s aggressive military operations in the Pacific Theater.

December 8: The Philippines was attacked just hours after the Pearl Harbor attack (the difference in day is due to the international date line). It was a US-controlled territory, and Japan needed it as a strategic base for its occupation of Southeast Asia. Japanese forces bombed the air bases, which affected US air control and landing capabilities. They invaded and eventually took control of Manila, the capital, and when the US surrendered in April of the next year, the Bataan Death March ensued.

December 10: Guam, a US territory, was attacked, and the Japanese took control easily.

December 8-23: Wake Island, a US territory, was repeatedly attacked to destroy military capabilities on the island. Japan needed the island as a strategic base for air and naval operations, and even though the US service members defended the island and even sunk two Japanese destroyers, Japan eventually won control of the island.

December 8-23: Hong Kong, a British territory, was attacked to destroy British defenses and establish Japanese control in southern China.

December 8-February 15: Malaya and Singapore, two British colonies, were attacked for over two months. Japan wanted to secure the locations for their vantage points in the Pacific and for their natural resources like rubber and tin. They overpowered the defense, and the fall of Singapore was a hard hit for the British.

December 8: Thailand, a neutral territory, was attacked and fell quickly to the Japanese, who needed the location as a vantage point to attack Burma and Malaya. Thailand signed an armistice and aligned itself with Japan.

December 17-March 9: The Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia), a Dutch colony, was attacked. Japan desperately wanted control of the oil reserves, and it launched a full-scale invasion in January. After several battles, the campaign ended in a Japanese victory.

January-May 1942: Burma (Myanmar), a British territory, was attacked by land, air, and sea throughout several battles. Japan wanted to cut off the Burma Road, a supply route to China which was critical for the Allied powers.

January 23, 1942: Rabaul (Papua New Guinea), an Australian-controlled territory, was invaded quickly. Japan needed the location as a key stronghold because of its proximity to the Solomon Islands. It became one of the largest Japanese military installations outside of the mainland.

May 3, 1942: The Solomon Islands, a British territory, were attacked. The island of Tulagi, near Guadalcanal, was a suitable location for the Japanese to build a base in the harbor. They began building on Guadalcanal in July. In August, the US began the Guadalcanal campaign, which lasted for months.

After Austria was annexed into the Third Reich in 1938, Austrians became German citizens. For virtually the entirety of the Second World War, Austria existed as a province of Germany and carried out the war in the name of the Reich.

When the Allies liberated Austria, there was much discussion on how to proceed.

So, what happened to Austria after the war?

Austria Immediately After the Second World War

In the years before the Second World War ended, the Allies were already discussing what to do with Austria in the event of the anticipated Allied victory. At the Moscow Conference in late 1943, the leaders of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States decided that they would consider the Nazi annexation of Austria to be null and void. They also recognized that Austria’s participation in the war was an issue that could not be avoided.

On March 29, 1945, Soviet troops crossed the border into Austria. On April 13, they rolled into Vienna while the Axis defenses crumbled all over the frontlines, and a new Austrian government was set up on April 27, just one day after American troops entered Austria. British and French troops entered over the following days.

Karl Renner was the head of this left-wing government composed of Social Democrats, Christian Socialists, and communists. Named the “Second Republic,” Austria was declared a democratic republic and regained much of its independence.

The Western powers initially withheld recognition of this government due to concerns that it could be a tool for the Soviets. Nevertheless, recognition eventually came later that year.

Despite Renner’s overture to the Soviets that he should lead a new government, he had little interest in Austria becoming a puppet state of the Soviet Union. Although many of the ministerial positions were occupied by communists, Renner appointed non-communists as their deputies.

A New Country

Despite the emergence of Austria as an independent state, the country would have to endure the rigors of Allied occupation, with the new government closely watched by the NKVD, the Soviet secret police. Meanwhile, Soviet troops scoured the land seeking to eliminate the last vestiges of Nazi support. As part of the Allied occupation regime, the British handed over 40,000 Cossacks who had fled the Soviets.

In the first weeks of the occupation, Red Army soldiers carried out violent reprisals against their former enemies, which included systematic sexual violence against women. Alarmed by the conduct of its soldiers, Moscow issued a directive forbidding violent interrogations. Despite the efforts, abusive crime was rampant. Soviet troops accounted for 90 percent of all crimes committed by occupation forces.

From a political perspective, and despite viewing Austria as a defeated Axis power, the Soviets stuck to the agreement of the Moscow Conference and treated Austria as a victim of Nazism. This did not absolve Austria from having to pay reparations, and the Soviets pressed their claims. Austrians had to pay for feeding and clothing the Soviet occupation troops. The Soviets also tried to force Austria to give up all its oil before the Western Allies could establish themselves in the country. This move was blocked by the Western Allies, but the Soviets still managed to exercise the surrender of Austrian oil in their zone of occupation in the east. These were massive burdens on a defeated country ravaged by war.

Similar to what had happened in Germany, the Allied powers split Austria into zones of occupation under the jurisdiction of the Soviets, the UK, the US, and France. The capital of Vienna lay in the Soviet zone and was split into zones of occupation like Berlin. Under this arrangement, Allied troops cooperated with one another and frequently conducted joint operations.

A New Government

On November 25, 1945, Austria held a general election. Former members of the Nazi Party were forbidden from voting. On the other side of the political divide, Austrian communists garnered just over five percent of the vote—a major blow to the Communist Party of Austria. The election resulted in a coalition government formed by the Christian Democrats (ÖVP), which won 49 percent of the vote, and the Social Democrats (SPÖ), which received 44 percent. Julius Raab of the Christian Democrats was offered the chancellorship, but this move was vetoed by the Soviets as Raab had been a member of the Austro-fascist Fatherland Front. Instead, Leopold Figl was appointed to the position.

The Soviets were disappointed by the poor showing of the Austrian communists, which undermined their efforts to influence the Austrian government.

As far as the Soviets were concerned, Figl was only marginally preferable to Raab. The Soviets responded to the event by plundering Austria of its resources, increasing tensions between the Western powers and the Soviet Union. NKVD units were tasked with dismantling Austrian industrial equipment and transporting it back to the Soviet Union, while industrial plants were seized and freight cars looted.

Despite the Soviets’ actions in Austria, the territory was not high on the Kremlin’s priority list. Austria was relatively far from Soviet borders, and Moscow preferred to focus its attention on neighboring countries. As such, there was little attempt to force a communist takeover of Austrian politics. Nevertheless, the Soviets remained in force and exercised military authority over their zone of control.

On June 28, 1946, the Western Allies loosened their grip on control of the Austrian government after the Second Control Agreement was signed by the four occupation powers. Only through a unanimous vote by the four powers could governmental decisions subsequently be overturned. Prior to this, all draft laws had to be submitted to the Allied Control Council for approval. After the agreement, only constitutional laws required Allied approval.

Denazification

In the first months after the war, massive efforts were implemented to root out and eliminate the Nazi presence in Austria. The Prohibition Act and the War Criminals Act were two of the most important laws that the new Austrian government enacted to root out, pacify, and punish Nazis. Those who had been members of the Nazi Party were forced to register with the authorities.

High-ranking officials and members of the SS and SA were targeted for asset seizure, removal from public sector jobs, and occupational bans. They were also subject to increased taxation.

Special courts were set up in major cities, and former Nazis were put on trial. Over a hundred thousand cases were brought before the judges, and 23,477 sentences were passed. Of the 43 people who received death sentences, 30 were executed.

As the years progressed, the fervor with which denazification took place in the courts dropped significantly. There were more acquittals than convictions from 1948 onwards, and sentences were reduced.

Despite these initiatives and the obvious complicity of Austrians in Nazi war crimes, it was still a common belief that Austria was more of a victim than a perpetrator and accomplice. This mindset would last for many decades.

Economic Challenges

While on the path to political independence, the state of Austria’s economy was in peril. Resources were being stripped, and more than a third of the budget was being spent on providing for the occupation.

In the Soviet zone, the Soviets took control of industries and companies and formed the Administration For Soviet Property in Austria (USIA). Initially run by Red Army staff, control of the USIA was transferred to industrial managers in 1949. The Austrians refused to recognize the legitimacy of this organization, and the Soviets refused to pay taxes on any of the profits of companies under the control of the USIA. To make matters worse, these profits were not reinvested into the Austrian economy but regarded by the Soviets as reparations.

Economic hardships also led to food shortages, and the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration had to intervene to provide aid. In May 1947, the crisis caused riots to erupt in Vienna. Chancellor Figl laid the blame on the communists, whom he accused of trying to launch a coup.

The economic woes were relieved by aid from the United States, which continued under the Marshall Plan. Austria was a huge beneficiary of Western aid, which accounted for 14 percent of the national income from 1948 to 1949.

As relief came pouring in from the US, Austria began to lean heavily towards the West. In October 1949, East Germany was formed, and the West feared that the same dynamic would happen in Austria, which had been split into occupation zones in exactly the same manner.

To counter potential Soviet designs on Austria, the West initiated the building of a new army for Austria. This army included soldiers who had fought for Germany during the Second World War.

In 1950, a series of general riots rocked Austria once again. The communists took over trade union offices but failed to recruit enough support. They had to admit defeat, but the specter of a communist takeover still loomed. The United States and its Western allies feared that Austria would become a battleground in a similar fashion to what was happening in Korea.

An End to the Occupation

The Soviets, however, would not replicate what had happened in East Germany. Global politics went through major shifts during the early 1950s, and the Soviets wanted to use Austria as a bargaining chip rather than set up another client state, which they would have to spend significant resources controlling. This dynamic became especially relevant after the death of Stalin in March 1953.

With the accession of Nikita Khrushchev, there was a thaw in relations between the East and West, and with the collapse of many USIA firms competing against their counterparts set up in the Western zones, the Soviet Union saw little value in pressing control over a nation that had shifted so heavily towards the West and was not integral to the defense of the Soviet Union.

Troop numbers were drastically reduced on both sides, and another election was held in 1953, which resulted in the same dominance of the SPÖ and the ÖVP. The coalition government was preserved, but this time, Julius Raab was elected as the new chancellor.

Raab was invited to talks in Moscow, and an agreement was reached. In exchange for Austrian independence, Raab agreed that Austria would remain neutral. This assuaged Soviet fears of NATO expansion into Austria.

This rapid development surprised the Allies, who were suspicious of Soviet motives. There was an initial belief that the development was too good to be true. There was, however, no indication that a deal had been made in bad faith, and the Soviets honored their recognition of an independent Austria.

The Austrian State Treaty was signed in Vienna on May 15, 1955, and Austria became a fully independent nation once more. By October 25 of that year, occupation forces had been completely withdrawn.

Spies and Summits

Austria stuck to its promise of neutrality throughout the Cold War and served as a meeting point between the Eastern and Western blocs. Through this, Austria offered a space that fostered constructive dialogue but also served as a hotbed of espionage.

The idea that Austria had solely been a victim of German aggression was a trope that existed for decades but was addressed in the early 90s following revelations of Nazi complicity involving Austrian president and Secretary-General of the United Nations, Kurt Waldheim.

In 1991 and 1993, Federal Chancellor Franz Vranitzky made speeches whereby he acknowledged that Austria was complicit in the actions of the Third Reich.