The start of imperial Rome is officially dated to 27 BCE, when Gaius Octavius Caesar was awarded the name Augustus, signaling his position as emperor. Following his precedent, Rome would be ruled by men with the title Augustus until Germanic tribes deposed the last emperor in Rome in 476 CE. This article provides a complete list of all Roman emperors with summaries of their contributions and scandals. It does not include the emperors who exclusively ruled in the East once the Roman Empire was split. The emperors in Constantinople continued to use the title Augustus until the 7th century, and the Byzantine Empire survived until the 15th century.
List of Roman Emperors in Chronological Order
Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BCE-68 CE)
- Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE)
- Tiberius (14-37 CE)
- Gaius Caligula (37-41 CE)
- Claudius (41-54 CE)
- Nero (54-68 CE)
Year of the Four Emperors (68-69 CE)
- Galba (68-69 CE)
- Otho (68-69 CE)
- Vitellius (69 CE)
Flavian Dynasty (69-96 CE)
Nerva-Antonine Dynasty (96-192 CE)
- Nerva (96-98 CE)
- Trajan (98-117 CE)
- Hadrian (117-138 CE)
- Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE)
- Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)
- Lucius Verus (161-169 CE)
- Commodus (180-192 CE)
Year of the Five Emperors (193-194 CE)
- Pertinax (193 CE)
- Didius Julianus (193 CE)
- Pescennius Niger (193-194 CE)
- Clodius Albinus (193-197 CE)
Severan Dynasty (193-211 CE)
- Septimius Severus (193-211 CE)
- Caracalla (211-217 CE)
- Geta (211 CE)
- Macrinus (217-218 CE)
- Diadumenian (218 CE)
- Elagabalus (218-222 CE)
- Severus Alexander (222-235 CE)
Third Century Crisis (235-284 CE)
- Maximinus Thrax (235-238 CE)
- Gordian I (238 CE)
- Gordian II (238 CE)
- Pupienus (238 CE)
- Balbinus (238 CE)
- Gordian III (238-244 CE)
- Philip I (244-249 CE)
- Philip II (247-249 CE)
- Decius (249-251 CE)
- Herennius Etruscus (251 CE)
- Trebonianus Gallus (251-253 CE)
- Hostilian (251 CE)
- Volusianus (251-253 CE)
- Aemilianus (253 CE)
- Sibannacus (253 CE)
- Valerian (253-260 CE)
- Gallienus (253-268 CE)
- Saloninus (260 CE)
- Claudius Gothicus (268-270 CE)
- Quintillus (270 CE)
- Aurelian (270-275 CE)
- Tacitus (275-276 CE)
- Florianus (276 CE)
- Probus (276-282 CE)
- Carus (282-283 CE)
- Carinus (283-285 CE)
- Numerian (283-284 CE)
The Tetrarchy (284-324 CE)
- Diocletian (284-305 CE)
- Maximian (286-305 CE)
- Galerius (305-311 CE)
- Constantius I (305-307 CE)
- Severus II (306-307 CE)
- Maxentius (306-312 CE)
- Licinius (308-324 CE)
- Valerius Valens (316-317 CE)
- Martinian (324 CE)
Constantine Dynasty (306-364 CE)
- Constantine I (306-337 CE)
- Constantine II (337-340 CE)
- Constans (337-350 CE)
- Constantius II (337-361 CE)
- Nepotianus (350 CE)
- Magnentius (350-353 CE)
- Vetranio (350 CE)
- Julian (361-363 CE)
- Jovian (363-364 CE)
Valentinian Dynasty (364-394 CE)
- Valentinian I (364-375 CE)
- Valens (364-378 CE)
- Procopius (365-366 CE)
- Gratian (375-383 CE)
- Magnus Maximus (383-388 CE)
- Valentinian II (388-392 CE)
- Eugenius (392-394 CE)
Theodosian Dynasty (379-457 CE)
- Theodosius I (379-395 CE)
- Arcadius (395-408 CE)
- Honorius (395-423 CE)
- Constantine III (407-411 CE)
- Theodosius II (408-450 CE)
- Priscus Attalus (409-410 CE)
- Constantinus III (421 CE)
- Johannes (423-425 CE)
- Valentinian III (425-455 CE)
- Marcian (450-457 CE)
Last Emperors in the West (455-476 CE)
- Petronius Maximus (455 CE)
- Avitus (455-456 CE)
- Majorian (457-461 CE)
- Libius Severus (461-465 CE)
- Anthemius (467-472 CE)
- Olybrius (472 CE)
- Glycerius (473-474 CE)
- Julius Nepos (474-475 CE)
- Romulus Augustus (475-476 CE)
Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BCE-68 CE)
For almost 500 years after the expulsion of the Roman kings, Rome was a staunch republic that actively rejected the idea of rule by one man. However, as the empire expanded and powerful generals were able to enrich themselves through conquest and rely on the personal loyalty of their armies, the principles that maintained the Republic were eroded.
Many strongmen vied for power in Rome in the dying days of the Republic, notably Marcus Licinius Crassus, the richest man in Rome, and Pompey the Great. However, the man who emerged victorious was Gaius Julius Caesar, who principally enriched and empowered himself through his conquests in Gaul.
He was soon deemed too powerful to be left unchecked, and civil war ensued. Caesar emerged victorious and was unopposed in his command of Rome. He was awarded the title “dictator” several times in recognition of his power, and, in 44 BCE, he was given the title “dictator perpetuo” (dictator for life).
Uncomfortable with this new world order, a group of senators assassinated Caesar on the ides of March, 44 BCE.
Caesar adopted his great-nephew Gaius Octavius in his will. He was able to claim Caesar’s power for himself, first by cooperating with Caesar’s friend and colleague Marcus Antonius against the faction that had assassinated Caesar, and then allying himself with the Republican faction against Antonius, claiming that he, Octavius, represented the ways of the Roman Republic, while Antonius, living in Egypt with Cleopatra, wanted to make himself a Greek-style king. When Marcus Antonius died after the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, Octavius Caesar was unchallenged in Rome.
Unlike Caesar, who struggled to formulate his position in a way that both respected the traditions of the Republic and consolidated his absolute power, over the course of five decades, Octavian established himself as “princeps,” ostensibly the first among equals. In reality, his power was undisputed, and Rome could never return to its old ways. He became the first emperor and the founder of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty.
Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE)
Augustus singlehandedly transformed Rome from a republic in turmoil to a thriving empire. Augustus’s image and name were everywhere, and anyone familiar with the absolute monarchs of the East would assume that Augustus was king in Rome. But he respected and leveraged republican institutions, which allowed him to claim to have restored the Roman Republic, rather than shattered it.
The stability provided by his more than 40-year rule allowed him to consolidate Rome’s extended borders, rebuild much of the city, and pass laws that encouraged morality and patriotism. He placed his family at the center of the Roman state and his household at the center of Roman religion, establishing a basis for hereditary power.
Read more about the emperor Augustus and how he transformed Rome.
Tiberius (14-37 CE)
Augustus adopted Tiberius, his stepson by his wife Livia, as his heir, but Augustus’s power was so entangled with his person that there was no guarantee it could be transferred to another. To his credit, Tiberius consolidated imperial power by meticulously following Augustus’s precedent and wishes, including securing the deification of his predecessor.
Tiberius was not initially unpopular. He was a proven general and efficient administrator. However, his reluctance to rule, the growing popularity of his adopted heir Germanicus and his family, and the betrayal of trusted confidants such as Sejanus, made him paranoid, resulting in extensive treason trials. When Tiberius died, living and ruling from the isolation of the island of Capri, few mourned his death.
Read more about the emperor Tiberius and his historic legacy.
Gaius Caligula (37-41 CE)
Tiberius was succeeded by Germanicus’s youngest son Gaius, affectionately known as Caligula (little boots). There was a general rejoicing, as Gaius initially seemed to share his father’s celebrated courage and morality. But Gaius soon proved himself not just a bad emperor but a mad emperor, probably as the result of mental illness brought on by epilepsy. He was a paranoid megalomaniac who abused his power to indulge in his desires. He was the first of many Roman emperors to be assassinated after fewer than four years in power.
Read more about the emperor Caligula and the debate as to whether he was a madman or misunderstood.
Claudius (41-54 CE)
When Caligula died, the Praetorian Guard—the emperor’s personal guard which had become one of the most important military and administrative powers in Rome—chose Gaius’s uncle Claudius as their new emperor and forced him on the Senate. Claudius was an unlikely emperor as he had been kept out of the public eye by his family due to illness, probably cerebral palsy. This is also probably why the brother of Germanicus survived the palace intrigue of the reigns of Tiberius and Gaius.
Claudius proved a decent emperor, being a good administrator and abolishing treason trials. Plus, he even oversaw the conquest of Britain, the first significant new territorial gain since the reign of Augustus.
The main criticism of Claudius is that he was overly influenced by his wives, especially his third wife Messalina, and fourth wife Agrippina, his niece and a daughter of Germanicus, who convinced Claudius to adopt and favor her son Nero over his own son, Britannicus.
Read more about the emperor Claudius and his unusual apotheosis.
Nero (54-68 CE)
Nero again looked like a promising leader during the first months of his reign, but it soon became apparent that life at court had not prepared the 16-year-old for power. He engaged in palace intrigue, reportedly killing his younger stepbrother and rival Britannicus, and his mother Agrippina when her influence threatened to limit his freedom.
He was then known for his hedonistic lifestyle, aspiring to the ignominious profession of an actor, taking both male and female lovers, and spending vast amounts of money on himself, including building a giant “domus aurea” (golden home) in the center of Rome. He is famous for supposedly playing his fiddle while much of Rome burned in a great fire in 64 CE. There were several conspiracies against him, and he soon lost the support of the Roman court, leading him to commit suicide in 68 CE. With no heirs, he was the last of the Julio-Claudians.
Read more about the emperor Nero and the unusual stories that survive about him.
Year of the Four Emperors (68-69 CE)
The death of Nero in 68 CE left a power vacuum in Rome with no obvious candidate to fill it. Powerful generals in different parts of the Empire began to compete for supreme power in Rome, plunging the empire into civil war.
Read a complete overview of the year of the four emperors.
Galba (68-69 CE)
Galba, the governor of Hispania Terraconensis, was proclaimed emperor by his supporters in various provinces shortly before the death of Nero. It was his march on Rome that prompted Nero to commit suicide. Accepted by the Senate, he was the first man to be called caesar as a title of power rather than a family name.
Read more about Galba and his brief reign.
Otho (68 CE)
Otho, governor of Lusitania, assumed he would be chosen as heir by the childless Galba. When he was overlooked, he took advantage of the fact that Galba had not paid the Praetorian Guard the usual donative and bribed them to support his claim. The Praetorians killed Galba and chose Otho in his place. Once he was verified by the Senate, he went about fashioning himself as a new Nero, who was still popular in parts of the empire.
Read more about Otho, the next Nero.
Vitellius (69 CE)
While Otho was making himself at home in Rome, Vitellius, governor of Germania Inferior, was hailed as emperor by the Roman armies in the north. He took Rome after facing Otho’s forces at the Battle of Bedracum, which left 40,000 Roman soldiers dead. As emperor, he was known for living a gluttonous and decadent lifestyle. He wasn’t prepared for Vespasian (who was leading the Roman war in Judea) to be proclaimed emperor by the eastern troops, taking power in Rome by the end of December 69 CE.
Read more about Vitellius and his supposed decadence.
Flavian Dynasty
Vespasian emerged as the victor of the civil war and was able to re-establish order in Rome. He also came with two sons, the up-and-coming general Titus, and the 19-year-old Domitian. They ushered in a period of prosperity that saw many great building projects, including the Colosseum, one of Rome’s most iconic structures.
Read more about the Flavian emperors and their dynastic achievements.
Vespasian (69-79 CE)
Vespasian came from a relatively humble family. He made his name leading the Roman campaign to suppress the Jewish revolt but still lacked the “auctoritas” attached to the Julio-Claudians. Much energy was spent commissioning writers, such as Tacitus and Josephus, to validate his power, and using omens and other superstitions to reinforce his imperial destiny.
According to contemporary sources, Vespasian brought both a practical nature and a level of humility to his rule which made him popular in Rome following the turbulent year of civil war. He apparently retained a sense of humor about his destiny until the end of his life, stating ironically on his death bed “Oh no, I think I am becoming a god.”
Find out more about Vespasian, the man who restored peace to the Empire.
Titus (79-81 CE)
Despite having made a name for himself as a military leader under his father in Judea, for which he celebrated a grand triumph, Titus was not popular when he came to power. This was principally because Vespasian had made him praetorian prefect during his rule, which basically made him his father’s enforcer in Rome.
Nevertheless, upon ascending to power, Titus reportedly became the “delight and darling of the human race,” known for his fairness and generosity. It may have helped that he inaugurated the Colosseum with 100 days of “bread and circuses” for the public.
Find out more about Titus, the delight and darling of the human race.
Domitian (81-96 CE)
Domitian was reportedly hungry for power from the start of his father’s reign, and desperately jealous of his older brother. When he finally got power, since Titus had no sons, he guarded it jealously and engaged in authoritarian rule. His reign is often described as a tyrannical terror during which the Senate lived in constant fear of his paranoia and fickle temper.
Domitian was assassinated by a group of his courtiers who reportedly feared for their lives. He remained popular with the army, whose favor he courted, which made justifying his death and installing a new emperor challenging. Many modern scholars suggest that this motivated his vilification in the ancient sources.
Find out more about the Domitian and his reign of tyranny.
Nerva-Antonine Dynasty (96-192 CE)
Despite the violent nature of Domitian’s death, the transition of power was relatively smooth and ushered in what is considered a golden age of the empire. Even in ancient times, the first five emperors of this dynasty became known as the five good emperors, who all governed well and chose their successors based on merit rather than nepotism.
Read more about the Nerva-Antonine Dynasty and the five good emperors.
Nerva (96-98 CE)
In the hours following the assassination of Domitian, the Senate realized they needed to move quickly to avoid another civil war. They chose Nerva from among themselves as an older senator, in his mid-60s, without children who could act as a caretaker while they found a more suitable candidate. This was the general Trajan, governor of Germania Superior, who was adopted by Nerva.
Find out more about Nerva, the caretaker emperor.
Trajan (98-117 CE)
By the end of his 19-year reign, Trajan was known as the “Optimus Princeps” for his generous and philanthropic rule and his military exploits. It was during his reign that Roman territory reached its maximum extent. But despite his reputation, Trajan did much to encroach on senatorial power and further concentrated authority, in Rome and the provinces, in the hands of the emperor.
Find out more about Trajan, the Optimus Princeps.
Hadrian (117-138 CE)
Hadrian, adopted by Trajan as his heir, became known as the traveling emperor because he journeyed to most parts of the empire, securing territories. This included initiatives like Hadrian’s Wall, which marked the border of Roman Britain in the north, and creating the Panhellenic Federation of Greeks. He restored many grand buildings in Rome and across the empire. However, he had a difficult relationship with the Senate—executing several members—and he destroyed Jerusalem and expelled the Jews from Judea, which became known as Palestine.
Read more about Hadrian, the traveling emperor, and his infamous wall.
Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE)
Antoninus Pius was Hadrian’s adopted successor and was known for his friendly relationship with the Senate and ruling over a period of relative peace across the empire. A combination of peace and administrative prudence resulted in financial stability and positive legal reforms.
Read more about Antoninus Pius, the pious and peaceful emperor.
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)
Marcus Aurelius worked closely with the elderly Antoninus Pius in the final years of his reign, leaving him well-prepared for power. He also studied philosophy with the famous Roman orator Fronto and wrote about Stoicism in his Meditations. The survival of these Meditations means that we know much more about the character of Marcus Aurelius than any other emperor. Peaceful in his mind and austere in his life, Marcus was not naturally a man of war, though he would spend ten years of his reign campaigning against Germanic incursions.
Find out more about Marcus Aurelius and his Meditations.
Lucius Verus (161-169 CE)
Marcus Aurelius did not rule alone. When the Senate wanted to confirm his power, he would only accept if Antoninus Pius’ other adopted son, Lucius Verus, was also made Augustus. Marcus was the senior of the pair, and Lucius spent most of his reign leading a Roman campaign against Parthia. He also died before his co-emperor Marcus, which is why he is often overlooked by history.
Find out more about the forgotten emperor Lucius Verus.
Commodus (180-192 CE)
Commodus was the first Roman emperor to succeed his father in power in a century. Marcus made Commodus his co-emperor in 177 CE, and he became sole ruler in 180 CE. He was autocratic, like Domitian, and loved to perform, like Nero. This resulted in him creating a cult of personality around himself as the Roman Hercules. He mostly occupied himself with organizing gladiatorial games, even competing himself in rigged matches that were considered shameful spectacles. He left the management of the empire to his palace chamberlain and praetorian prefects. He was assassinated by members of his household.
Find out more about Commodus and his quest to become the Roman Hercules.
Year of the Five Emperors (193-194 CE)
The death of Commodus resulted in another power vacuum but the Praetorians and the Senate were quick to install a new emperor. First was Pertinax, the urban prefect, but when he tried to restore order among the Praetorians, they turned on him. The experienced general Didius Julianus offered them a large financial incentive, so the Praetorians killed Pertinax and supported Didius. Meanwhile, Pescennius Niger in Syria, Clodius Albinus in Britain, and Septimius Severus in Pannonia all openly revolted and declared themselves emperors. Septimus Severus emerged as the victor of the civil war.
Read more about the year of the five emperors.
Severan Dynasty (193-211 CE)
The Severan Dynasty offered Rome around 40 years of peace, and many of Rome’s most famous ancient monuments were built during this period. It was also a period of significant militarization that further sidelined the old aristocratic families.
Septimius Severus (193-211 CE)
Born in North Africa, Septimus Severus was known as the African emperor famous for his conquest of Parthia and for expanding the Empire in Africa and Britain. He disbanded, replaced, and reorganized the fickle Praetorian Guard, and reorganized the army across the empire, including raising wages.
Discover more about the African emperor Septimus Severus.
Caracalla (211-217 CE)
Caracalla was co-emperor with his father from 198 CE, but after Septimus Severus’s death, he ignored his father’s command to share power with his younger brother, Geta. He had Geta killed, and his supporters massacred. Caracalla passed an edict that granted Roman citizenship to all free men throughout the Empire, built the enormous Baths of Caracalla in Rome, and reformed the currency. He was close with the army and obsessed with imitating Alexander the Great, including launching an unfinished assault on Parthia before his death.
Read more about Caracalla, and the second Alexander.
Geta (211 CE)
Geta was the son of Septimus Severus and the younger brother of Caracalla. He joined his father and brother as co-emperors in 209 CE, at age 20. But when Septimus Severus died in 211, Caracalla not only killed Geta but ordered the massacre of around 20,000 of his supporters.
Discover more about the brief reign of the unfortunate Geta.
Macrinus (217-218 CE)
Macrinus served as praetorian prefect under Caracalla. He lost the emperor’s trust and feared for his life when Caracalla summoned him to Parthia, so he had Caracalla killed and the army proclaimed him the new emperor. Macrinus never returned to Rome as he was busy resolving the Parthian conflict. In his absence, the young Elagabalus was installed in his place. Macrinus was defeated by Elagabalus and his supporters at the Battle of Antioch.
Diadumenian (218 CE)
Macrinus named his 10-year-old son Diadumenian his co-emperor. While Diadumenian survived the Battle of Antioch, he was captured and killed shortly after.
Elagabalus (218-222 CE)
While Macrinus was hailed emperor in Parthia, Julia Maesa, the aunt of Caracalla, made her 14-year-old grandson Elagabalus a competing emperor in Rome. They defeated Macrinus on the battlefield and secured his position. Elagabalus grew up as a priest of the Arab sun god Elagabal and tried to displace the traditional Roman gods in favor of the foreign deity. Historians also believe that he suffered from gender dysmorphia, explaining many of the strangest stories about the boy. After just four years, his assassination was arranged by the same grandmother.
Read about the complex and contradictory life of Elagabalus.
Severus Alexander (222-235 CE)
When Julia Maesa removed Elagabalus from power, she replaced him with her other 13-year-old grandson, Severus Alexander. His reign was considered peaceful and prosperous, restoring order and morality after the uncertainty of Elagabalus. But there were dark clouds on the horizon, with the Sasanian Empire in the east and Germanic tribes in the north threatening the empire’s borders. Severus Alexander tried to resolve these issues with diplomacy and bribery, which alienated the army and led to his assassination.
Third Century Crisis (235-284 CE)
The Third Century Crisis was a roughly 50-year period during which Rome almost collapsed several times due to ongoing civil wars and growing external threats. At one point, the empire was split into the Gallic, Roman, and Palmyrene empires.
Deep dive into the Third Century Crisis that almost destroyed the Roman Empire.
Maximinus Thrax (235-238 CE)
Maximinus Thrax, a general on the Rhine under Severus Alexander, was hailed emperor by the army following Alexander’s assassination, though several other emperors were also proclaimed in opposition. He is known as a “barracks emperor,” a low-class soldier raised by the army. While he used the name Caesar for several years, when he finally marched on Rome he was assassinated by his own men.
Gordian I and Gordian II (238 CE)
Gordian was the governor of Africa Proconsularis when Severus Alexander died. Maximinus was unpopular in Africa, where he levied oppressive taxes. The locals insisted that Gordian become their imperial candidate. He agreed to do so with his son as his colleague. Word was sent to Rome, and the Senate supported Gordian, as they resented the low-born Maximinus. But Maximinus’s supporters attacked the Gordians and defeated them at the Battle of Carthage.
Pupienus and Balbinus (238 CE)
The Senate had supported the Gordians in place of Maximinus, and after their deaths, they needed new champions. From among the Senate, they elected Pupienus and Balbinus as co-emperors. The ineffective pair were killed by the Praetorian Guard, who supported Gordian III.
Gordian III (238-244 CE)
The grandson of Gordian I, Gordian III was just 13 years old when he came to power in 238 alongside Pupienus and Balbinus. The assassination of the latter two left Gordian III sole emperor. He was married to the daughter of the praetorian prefect, Timesitheus, who became de facto ruler. Gordian III died while on a campaign against Parthia.
Philip I (244-249 CE)
Philip I, also known as Philip the Arab, was one of Gordian III’s praetorian prefects and was on campaign with him against Parthia when he died. Philip was hailed by the army and confirmed by the Senate when he returned to Rome after negotiating peace with the Sasanian Empire. His reign was relatively stable until a rival general, Decius, challenged and defeated him at the Battle of Verona.
Philip II (247-249 CE)
Philip II was the son of Philip the Arab and was declared co-emperor with his father in 247 CE, despite being just ten years old. The sources do not agree whether he was killed in battle alongside his father or was killed by the Praetorians later.
Decius (249-251 CE)
After putting down a revolt in the province of Moesia, the Roman troops there decided to hail their general Decius as a Roman emperor, in opposition to Philip the Arab. He defeated Philip at the Battle of Verona and was recognized by the Senate. He tried to strengthen the Roman state by reinforcing traditional Roman religion, leading to the persecution of many Christians. He was killed while leading the Roman forces against the Goths in Moesia.
Herennius Etruscus (251 CE)
Decius had his son Herennius Etruscus declared caesar in 250, and then augustus and co-emperor in 251. He accompanied the troops to deal with the Gothic invasion and was killed in battle alongside his father.
Trebonianus Gallus (251-253 CE)
Trebonianus Gallus was the governor of Moesia Superior when Decius arrived to deal with the Gothic invasion. When Decius was killed, Gallus was hailed emperor by the troops, despite Decius’s younger son Hostilian being hailed in Rome. Wanting to secure his power, Gallus accepted Hostilian as co-emperor, made peace with the Goths, and headed to Rome. Upon arrival, he deified Decius and took his son Volusian as co-emperor, while Hostilian disappeared from history. Like his predecessors, his reign was plagued by internal revolts, resulting in his death.
Hostilian (251 CE)
Hostilian was the younger son of Decius, left behind in Rome while his father and brother went to defend the borders in Moesia. When news of their deaths reached Rome, he was made emperor, while Trebonianus Gallus was hailed emperor in Moesia. The two agreed to co-rulership, but Hostilian seems to have died of plague within a few months.
Volusianus (251-253 CE)
Volusianus was the son of Terbonianus Gallus and was named co-emperor with his father in 251 CE. He was killed as part of a civil war engagement with Aemilianus alongside his father.
Aemilianus (253 CE)
Aemilianus was another general fighting against the Goths in Moesia. Following an important victory in 253 CE, he was hailed emperor by his troops and marched on Italy, where he defeated Trebonianus Gallus. But he was killed by his own men a month later when another general, Valerian, was proclaimed emperor by a much larger Roman army.
Silbannacus (253 CE)
Silbannacus is not mentioned in any surviving written sources, but two surviving coins reveal that he was a contender for power around 250 CE.
Valerian (253-260 CE)
Valerian was a traditional senatorial noble who served as a general under Trebonianus Gallus. He was preparing his men to assist Gallus against the usurper Aemilianus when Gallus was killed, and Valerian’s men hailed him as the new emperor. He continued his march towards Rome, causing Aemilianus’s troops to abandon and kill him.
Valerian appointed his son Gallienus as his co-emperor, giving him responsibility for the West, while Valerian took the East. Valerian traveled to the East to deal with the Sassanid threat but was defeated and taken prisoner at the Battle of Edessa.
Gallienus (253-268 CE)
Gallienus was made co-emperor with his father Valerian in 253 CE and then ruled alone after his father’s capture in 260 CE. He successfully defeated many potential usurpers and Germanic tribes but during his rule portions of the West broke off into the Gallic Empire, and portions of the East broke off into the Palmyrene Empire. He was eventually assassinated as part of a conspiracy.
Claudius Gothicus (268-270 CE)
Claudius Gothicus was a general in Gallienus’s army and was proclaimed emperor by the troops amid unsubstantiated rumors that he was involved in Gallienus’s assassination. He won a major victory against the invading Goths at the Battle of Naissus, taking thousands of Gothic prisoners and destroying their cavalry. This victory earned him the name “Gothicus.”
Quintillus (270 CE)
When his brother Claudius Gothicus died of illness, power passed to Quintillus. However, after only a few weeks he was overthrown by Aurelian, who had been Claudius’s master of horses (cavalry commander) and was supported by the legions.
Aurelian (270-275 CE)
The warrior emperor Aurelian defeated the Alamanni, Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi to protect the empire’s northern borders. He then retook the Palmyrene and Gallic Empires to reunite Rome’s territory. He built the Aurelian Walls in Rome and made monetary reforms to cease currency devaluation. He was known for his autocratic rule, using the titles “dominus et deus” (master and god) and “restitutor orbis” (restorer of the world).
In the last year of his reign, Aurelian set out to attack Persia following the death of its powerful Sassanid king, Shapur I. He was killed en route by his own men fearing his strict and violent justice for minor transgressions.
Discover more about Aurelian, the restorer of the world.
Tacitus (275-276 CE)
After Aurelian’s death, for the first time in centuries, the army left the selection of the next emperor to the Senate. They chose Tacitus, a senator who had held the consulship twice and came from one of the richest families in the empire. During his reign, he campaigned against the Goths and the Germanic Heruli tribe, but he died of fever just six months after his accession.
Florianus (276 CE)
When his half-brother Tacitus died, Florianus declared himself emperor and was recognized by the Senate and much of the empire, though he was notably not accepted in the eastern provinces of Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia, which rallied behind Probus. Florianus led his troops against Probus, but they could not handle the hot conditions or Probus’s tactics, so his troops revolted and killed him.
Probus (276-282 CE)
After the death of Tacitus, while the Senate recognized Florianus, Probus, a general with extraordinary powers in the east, was hailed as emperor by the troops of Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia. When Florianus marched east to face him, Probus won the battle and was confirmed by the Senate in Rome.
He spent most of his reign traveling the empire dealing with threats, first along the Danube, then against the Alemanni and Longiones in Gaul, and later the Vandals in Raetia, Illyricum, and Lycia. His reign ended when the praetorian prefect, Aurelius Carus, was elected emperor by his troops, leading Probus to be assassinated by his soldiers.
Carus (282-283 CE)
Carus, the prefect of the Praetorian Guard under Probus, was hailed as emperor when the army became disgruntled with Probus’s excessive discipline. He continued Probus’s work, mostly fighting Germanic tribes and Sarmatians along the Danube. But he died on a campaign in the east against the Sassanid Empire, reportedly struck by lightning.
Carinus (283-285 CE)
Carinus was the oldest son of Carus, and with his younger brother Numerian, was made co-emperor and given control over the West. The sources portray him as dissolute and incompetent, but this is probably due to propaganda under Diocletian. It is unclear exactly how he died, but it was part of the revolt that led Diocletian to power.
Numerian (283-284 CE)
The younger son of Carus, Numerian, became co-emperor with his brother and took responsibility for the East. He seems to have died of natural causes while in Persia, a fact hidden from the army by his staff for several days. When his death was discovered, his troops declared Diocletian their emperor.
The Tetrarchy (284-324 CE)
When he came to power, Diocletian reorganized imperial power to end the chaos of the previous half-century. He introduced the Tetrarchy, which had two senior emperors (augusti) and two junior emperors (caesares) who divided responsibility for the Empire between them.
Read more about the Tetrarchy and its fall.
Diocletian (284-305 CE)
While Diocletian was another “barracks emperor,” he was determined to end the anarchy of the previous 50 years. He established the Tetrarchy (lit. rule of four) to manage power and succession. This enabled Diocletian and his colleagues to secure the empire’s borders.
Diocletian himself defeated the Sarmatians, Capri, Alamanni, and usurpers in Egypt. He also sacked the capital of Persia before negotiating a peace treaty. Diocletian chose to retire from office in 305.
Read more about Diocletian, sometimes called the genius who saved Rome.
Maximian (286-305 CE)
Maximian rose through Rome’s military ranks and Diocletian made him Caesar in 285, then Augustus and co-emperor in 286. He spent most of his reign in Trier (Germany) fighting Gallic rebels and Germanic tribes. He retired alongside Diocletian in 305 but was involved in the civil wars of the following years.
Galerius (305-311 CE)
Galerius was appointed the junior caesar in the East by Diocletian and then became the augustus in the East in 305. While caesar, he was successful against the Sassanian Empire in Persia. As augustus, he was quickly involved in power struggles when his co-emperor Constantius Chlorus died in Britain and his troops declared for his son Constantine, in opposition to Galerius’s choice. He spent much of the rest of his reign dealing with this political intrigue before dying of disease.
Constantius Chlorus (305-307 CE)
Constantius Chlorus was a member of the original Tetrarchy, initially a caesar under Diocletian and then assuming the superior title of augustus. He died while campaigning in Britain against the Picts, and his supporters swore for his son Constantine, later known as Constantine the Great.
Maxentius (306-213 CE)
The son of the former emperor Maximian, Maxentius controlled Italy and North Africa. The Senate recognized him as augustus, but he was never fully recognized by his co-emperors. He spent most of his reign engaged in civil war against Licinius and Constantine until he was defeated at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. He was the last emperor to formally reside in Rome.
Severus II (306-307 CE)
Galerius made Severus II his co-augustus in 306 CE. At the same time, the troops in Britain and Gaul hailed Constantine I as augustus. Severus was forced to surrender to Maxentius during his coup and was later killed.
Maximinus Daza (310-313 CE)
Maximinus Daza was the nephew and adopted son of Galerius, who made him a caesar, giving him control of Syria and Egypt. When Licinius was elevated to augustus in 308, Maximinus also started styling himself as augustus with the support of local troops. He eventually gathered 70,000 men to face off with Licinius but was defeated at the Battle of Tzirallum, forcing him to flee. He was the last person to be referred to as “pharaoh of Egypt.”
Licinius (308-324 CE)
Licinius was a close ally of Galerius, who made him augustus in 308 with command of the Balkan provinces. When Galerius died, Licinius made and broke several alliances before reaching an agreement with Constantine as emperor in the West, while Licinius dealt with the Sassanid Empire in the East. He co-authored the Edict of Milan, which affirmed Christian rights within the empire.
Valerius Valens (316-317 CE)
Valerius Valens was briefly named emperor in the West by Licinius against Constantine during the civil wars. When Constantine defeated Licinius at the Battle of Mardia, Licinius was forced to recognize Constantine as a senior emperor and command Valens to step down. Licinius later had Valens executed.
Martinian (324 CE)
Similar to Valens, when Licinius broke with Constantine in 324, he named Martinian as his new co-augustus. The pair were defeated by Constantine at the Battle of Chrysopolis.
Constantinian Dynasty (306-364 CE)
The dynasty founded by Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, was a period when borders were fortified with strongholds, Christianity spread, and the capital was moved from Rome to Constantinople.
Constantine I (306-337 CE)
Constantine became emperor of the Roman West after being hailed by the troops in Britain and Gaul following the death of his father, Constantius Chlorus. After almost 20 years of civil war with other claimants to power, he was sole emperor by 324. He is most famous for ending Christian persecution and initiating the conversion of the empire. He also founded the city of Constantinople and made it the new capital of the Roman and later Byzantine empires.
Read more about Constantine the Great and his role in the rise of Christianity.
Constantine II (337-340 CE)
Before his death, Constantine I organized for his sons to share power with their cousins Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, but this was unacceptable to Constantine II, who killed many male family members to secure the position of himself and his brothers Constans and Constantius II. While sharing power with his brothers, Constantine II ruled Gaul, Hispania, and Britain. He wanted more control over his brother Constans and died when trying to invade Italy.
Constans (337-350 CE)
When Constans became co-emperor following his father’s death, he took control of the regions of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. When he defeated his brother’s invasion of Italy, he also took Gaul. He was known for his Christian piety and policies such as banning pagan sacrifices. He was overthrown by the general Magnentius.
Constantius II (337-361 CE)
The youngest son of Constantine the Great, Constantius II took control of the East after his father’s death. He saw constant warfare, both externally against the Sasanian Empire and internally against pretenders, later becoming the sole ruler of the empire. He promoted a strand of Christianity called Arianism, banned pagan sacrifices, and issued laws against Jews. He made his cousin Julian his successor in 355, and in 360, Julian tried to usurp power. They did not come to battle because Constantius died of illness.
Nepotianus (350 CE)
Nepotianus was a grandson of Constantius Chlorus and claimed power in Rome after the death of Constans. He reigned for 28 days before he was killed by the usurper Magnentius.
Magnentius (350-353 CE)
Magnentius was a general in Gaul who was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 350 CE. After killing Constans, an unpopular ruler, he gained control of most of the West. He was defeated by Constantius II at the Battle of Mons Seleucus.
Vetranio (350 CE)
Vetranio briefly rose up and took control of Illyricum during the chaos of 350, minting coins that claimed the title augustus. Both Vertanio and Magnentius put images of Constantius II on their coins, suggesting that they each hoped the augustus in the East would choose them as his co-ruler. Vetranio capitulated to Constantius II when he realized his position was weak.
Julian (361-363 CE)
Julian was the cousin of Constantius II and was adopted by him as his heir in 355. In 360 he tried to claim co-rulership, which Constantius objected to, but the older emperor died before the issue could be resolved and Julian became sole ruler.
A pagan who rejected Christianity and promoted Neoplatonic Hellenism, Julian became known as Julian the Apostate. He launched a campaign against the Sasanian Empire in Persia in 363 with moderate success but was fatally wounded at the Battle of Samarra.
Read more about the reign of the last pagan emperor Julian.
Jovian (363-364 CE)
Jovian was a member of the imperial guard and accompanied Julian to Persia. When Julian was on his deathbed, he named Jovian his successor. Jovian was forced to make a humiliating peace with the Sassanid Empire and then try to lead the army home. He died en route.
Valentinian Dynasty (364-394 CE)
The Valentinian Dynasty provided the empire with 30 years of stability over five generations and oversaw the permanent splitting of the empire into East and West.
Valentinian I (364-375 CE)
Following the death of Jovian, many names were suggested for the succession but many refused the position. Valentinian was eventually chosen as a qualified and willing candidate. He selected his brother Valens as his co-emperor, giving him the East while taking the West. He fought successfully along the Rhine and Danube, and his general Theodosius put down revolts in Africa and Britain. He died from a stroke while fighting on the Danube.
Valens (364-378 CE)
When made emperor in the East by his brother, Valens faced regular usurpers, campaigned against the Goths, and dealt with a constant Persian threat. He tried to settle the Goths in the Balkans, which led to the Gothic War, which saw Valens and most of his army killed at a battle near Adrianople.
Procopius (365-366 CE)
When Julian died, it was rumored that he wanted Procopius as his successor, putting his life in danger and forcing the military man to flee. But when he became aware of discontent among some of the legions, he took advantage to declare himself emperor, bribing the two legions in Constantinople to assist him. Valens almost made terms with the usurper but was convinced to fight. Procopius lost several battles and was caught and beheaded.
Gratian (375-383 CE)
Gratian became the emperor of the West after the death of his father Valentinian I, nominally sharing power with his infant brother Valentinian II. He chose Theodosius to replace his uncle Valens in the East when he died in battle in 379. As a Nicene Christian, Gratian refused the office of chief priest and removed the Altar of Victory from the Senate House. He fell when he marched against the usurper Magnus Maximus and his men turned against him.
Magnus Maximus (383-388 CE)
Magnus Maximus was an officer serving in Roman Britain who was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 383, and then in Gaul, defeating Gratian on the battlefield. In 384 he was turned back when he tried to push into Italy, but an accord was still reached between Valentinian II, Theodosius, and Maximus that made him emperor in Britain, Gaul, Spain, and Africa. During his rule, he was known for his harsh treatment of heretics. When he tried to push into Italy again in 387, he was defeated and killed.
Valentinian II (375-392 CE)
The youth Valentinian II was made emperor in the west alongside his brother Gratian in the East in 375 but lost much of his territory to Magnus Maximus in 383. This territory was restored to him by Theodosius, the emperor in the East, in 388 following the death of Magnus Maximus. Valentinian II relied heavily on the advice of his general Arbogast, and after the two quarreled in 392, Valentinian was discovered hanging in his room.
Eugenius (392-394 CE)
Following the death of Valentinian II, his general and advisor Arbogast made Eugenius emperor in his place. However, Eugenius was not recognized by Theodosius in the East, as he had intended to install his young son as emperor in the West. While in Italy, Eugenius capitalized on discontent caused by Theodosius’s policies targeting pagans to build up support. When the two sides eventually met on the battlefield in 394, Eugenius was killed and Arbogast committed suicide.
Theodosian Dynasty (379-457 CE)
The Theodosian Dynasty consolidated imperial power in the East, establishing a strong basis for what would become the Byzantine Empire. They contributed significantly to embedding Christianity into the state and pushed the idea of divine authority providing political legitimacy. They also spread the Nicene Creed, one of the most important underlying creeds of Greek Orthodox Christianity.
Theodosius I (379-395 CE)
Theodosius was the son of a high-ranking general under Valentinian and also had his own military career. Gratian chose him as emperor of the East when Valens was killed fighting the Goths. He ended the Gothic Wars and made a peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire in Persia. He maintained the empire in the West following the death of Gratian, but eventually turned on Eugenius, conquering the West and becoming the last emperor of the entire Roman Empire.
He was a devout Christian who did much to move the Empire toward a unified form of Christianity. Through the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 he outlawed Arianism and made the Nicene Creed part of the state religion. A series of decrees between 389 and 391 all but ended paganism, with temples closed and priesthoods disbanded. He was also known for the massacre of Thessalonica, which saw 7,000 citizens, including women and children, slaughtered in response to rioting.
Read more about Theodosius, the saint, and his sins.
Arcadius (395-408 CE)
When Theodosius the Great died, his son Arcadius succeeded him in the East and Honorius in the West. Arcadius was considered a weak ruler who was overly influenced by his ministers and wife, Aelia Eudoxia.
Honorius (395-423 CE)
Honorius became emperor in the West following the death of his father, but as a youth, he was under the regency of General Stilicho, and he was later heavily influenced by the popes. During his reign, in 410, Rome was sacked for the first time by the Visigoths.
Honorius was under constant threat of revolt, losing Rome to Attalus for a period and Gaul and Britain to Constantine III and Constans II.
Constantine III (407-411 CE)
Like his namesake Constantine the Great, Constantine III was hailed as emperor by his troops in Britain and then accepted in Gaul. After dealing with Germanic tribes threatening the Rhine, he engaged in civil war with Honorius and his supporters, eventually being recognized by Honorius as his co-emperor in the West. He raised his son Constans II as his co-emperor. After further fighting with the Germans, he abdicated his position and took holy orders.
Theodosius II (408-450 CE)
Theodosius II followed his father Arcadius as emperor in the East when he was just seven years old. Under his regime, the Theodosian Walls were built for the defense of Constantinople, the University of Constantinople was founded, and a collection of all existing laws was collected and published as the Codex Theodosianus.
Priscus Attalus (409-410 CE)
Priscus Attalus was a Roman senator who was declared emperor by the Visigoths when they sacked Rome. Attalus was later captured by Honorius and displayed in his triumph of 416.
Constantius III (421 CE)
Constantius III was an ally of Honorius against Constantine II and tribes in Hispania and Gaul. He was named co-emperor in the West in 421 but died after seven months.
Johannes (423-425 CE)
When Honorius died, Theodosius II in the East did not immediately name a successor for him in the West, so the Western court named Johannes, a senior civil servant. A civil war between East and West ensued, and the West petitioned the Huns for help. Their forces arrived three days after Johannes was captured and decapitated. Terms were soon reached.
Valentinian III (425-455 CE)
After the death of Honorius, Theodosius II named Valentinian III as his successor in the West, defeating Johannes to secure his position. Valentinian was just five years old. His administration dealt with several uprisings among Roman generals as well as invasions from beyond the borders. Notably, he made a treaty with Attila the Hun, only to have him turn around and invade the West a few years later, though he was repelled.
He relied heavily on his military commander Aetius throughout his reign, but eventually killed him on trumped-up charges due to suspicion. Followers of Aetius then assassinated the emperor.
Marcian (450-457 CE)
Following the death of Theodosius II, unexpectedly, a bureaucrat named Marcian was nominated by the court as his successor, also marrying Theodosius’s sister. Marcian broke existing treaties with the Huns and invaded their home territories, forcing them to retreat from the empire. He was succeeded by Leo I, whose empire was now exclusively in the East.
Last Emperors in the West (455-476 CE)
The final years of the empire in the West resembled the chaos of the Third Century Crisis, with power constantly changing hands between emperors, sometimes called “shadow emperors” because many were under the influence of other powerful parties. Over 20 years, the emperors would lose control of all the western provinces, and eventually Italy itself.
Petronius Maximus (455 CE)
Following the death of Valentinian III (which he may have conspired in), the senator Petronius Maximus used bribery to have himself named as the next emperor in the West. He tried to marry Valentinian’s widow, but she asked the Vandals for help. They sacked Rome and Petronius was killed by his own men.
Avitus (455-456 CE)
Avitus was a trusted military man under Petronius Maximus, sent to the Visigoths to negotiate help against the Vandals. Avitus was with the Visigoth king Theodoric II when news of the death of Petronius arrived, and hailed Avitus as the new emperor. Avitus marched on Rome with his foreign troops, angering the locals who were still suffering from the aftermath of the sack of Rome. The imperial guard revolted against him, under Ricimer and Majorian, and the Senate deposed him.
Majorian (457-461 CE)
After successfully deposing Avitus, Majorian was declared emperor with Ricimer as his “magister militrum” (chief military officer). He reclaimed much of the West but still ruled over a diminished empire. He defeated the Vandals in Italy, took back parts of Hispania from the Visigoths, reconquered Sicily, retook Lugdunum and much of Gaul, and prepared a fleet to sail to Africa, but it was destroyed by the Vandals. He was betrayed by Ricimer, who had him arrested, deposed, and killed when he returned to Italy.
Libius Severus (461-465 CE)
Ricimer placed Libius Severus in power as a new puppet emperor, but he was never recognized by his Eastern counterpart. The Vandal king who had made an alliance with Majorian invaded Italy, and Gallic and Dalmatian officials who had supported Majorian refused to support Severus. He died in unknown circumstances after just four years.
Anthemius (467-472 CE)
Anthemius was an eastern noble who had hoped to succeed Marcian in the East but was overlooked for Leo I. Leo then appointed him emperor in the West following the death of Libius Severus. He spent his reign campaigning against the Visigoths and Vandals, but also in political conflict with Ricimer. The two finally broke when Anthemius sentenced one of Ricimer’s allies to death. Leo sent Olybrius to Italy to mediate between the two but Ricimer convinced Olybrius to take his side and declared him emperor. Ricimer besieged Anthemius in Rome for five months and then killed him.
Olybrius (472 CE)
Both Olybrius and Ricimer died within a few months of seizing power from Anthemius, both apparently of natural causes. Olybrius notably, and unlike his predecessors, never had himself depicted in military dress.
Glycerius (473-474 CE)
Glycerius was chosen as successor to Olybrius by Gundobad, the son of Ricimer, and his successor as magister militrum. He turned back a Visigoth invasion by force and an Ostrogoth invasion through diplomacy. He was never recognized by Leo in the East and was forced to abdicate when Leo appointed Julius Nepos as the Western emperor and sent him to Italy with an army.
Julius Nepos (474-475 CE)
Having been appointed as emperor in the West by Emperor Leo in the East, Julius Nepos marched on Italy with an eastern army. He was the last emperor to be crowned in Rome until Charlemagne in the 9th century. After a short time, the new magister militum, Orestes, turned on Julius Nepos and drove him out of Italy and into Dalmatia with his eastern army. From there he continued to claim rulership of the West until his murder in 480, which might technically make him the last Roman emperor of the West.
Romulus Augustulus (475-476 CE)
After deposing Julius Nepos, Orestes placed his ten-year-old son Romulus Augustulus in power. His reign ended when Odoacer, leading a group of Rome’s client kingdoms, demanded and was refused Italian lands to settle. He killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. No successor was suggested in his place, making him the last Western Roman Emperor. Odoacer proclaimed himself the first King of Italy, and at least nominally accepted Zeno, who was now the eastern emperor, as his colleague in power. While this can be seen as a continuation of the empire in a new form, historians generally use this to mark the transition from antiquity to the Medieval Period.
