Albania’s cities offer history lovers an insight into the country’s diverse heritage. The Romans left behind a large footprint in the coastal city of Durrës, which, alongside Shkodër, once belonged to Venice’s maritime empire. Krujë served as a bastion of Albanian resistance to Ottoman conquest, while the attractive Ottoman architecture in Gjirokastër and Berat has been recognized as UNESCO Heritage Sites. Independent Albania was born in the southern coastal city of Vlorë, while the capital of Tirana is a vibrant city seeking to overcome its communist past.

1. Tirana

Tirana is Albania’s capital and largest city, with a population of some 400,000 people. While the site has been inhabited since antiquity, the city itself was founded relatively recently in the early 17th century and became an important commercial and artistic center. After becoming Albania’s temporary capital in 1920, a designation that became permanent in 1925, Tirana experienced rapid urban development under the influence of Italian city planners. The city suffered extensive damage during the Second World War and was rebuilt by the Communist authorities who took over the country.

Skanderbeg Square in the city center is surrounded by a number of religious and cultural buildings. The early 19th-century Et’hem Bey Mosque was one of the few buildings in the city center to escape destruction and is, therefore, one of the oldest structures in the city. The National Theater of Opera and Ballet is located to the east of the square, while the National Historical Museum is situated to the northwest. Opened in 1981, the museum offers a comprehensive view of Albanian history from Pyrrhus of Epirus to independence and Communist rule in the 20th century. It also has a space dedicated to Mother Theresa.

The so-called Tirana Castle to the south of Skanderbeg Square is located on the site of a Byzantine fortress built by Emperor Justinian the Great. While the complex incorporates a wall from an Ottoman-era structure, the site has been redeveloped into a shopping and dining venue and is of limited historical interest.

One of Tirana’s most unique structures is the Pyramid of Tirana, which opened as a museum to Communist dictator Enver Hoxha in 1988, three years after his death. Following the collapse of communism in 1991, the building became a conference center. It served as a NATO base during the 1999 Kosovo War and has most recently been redeveloped as an IT center. Visitors can climb to the top of the pyramid for panoramic views of the city.

Another legacy of Hoxha’s rule found throughout Tirana and Albania is the network of underground bunkers designed to resist a land invasion after Hoxha fell out with the Soviet Union in the 1960s. While most of these bunkers are designed to accommodate a couple of soldiers at most, a couple of large underground bunkers intended for government officials have been transformed into museums. Bunk Art 1 to the east of the city offers a comprehensive account of Albanian history during the Communist era, while Bunk Art 2 in the city center focuses on the notorious political oppression under Hoxha’s regime.

2. Gjirokastër

The southern Albanian city of Gjirokastër is known for its stone tower houses dating from the Ottoman period. The city’s name, first recorded in the 14th century, comes from the Greek Agyrocastron, or “silver castle,” though the eponymous fortress has been around since the 12th century. The imposing hilltop fortress is the city’s most iconic site. While a basic ticket grants entry to the castle grounds and walls, visitors can also gain access to a local history museum and a Museum of Armaments for a small extra fee.

From the castle walls, it is easy to see why Gjirokastër is nicknamed the Stone City. The iconic manor houses that fill the slopes of the Drino River Valley were built by wealthy local families between the 17th and 19th centuries. Historic buildings such as the Skënduli House and the Zekate House have remained within the possession of these families. In exchange for a small entrance fee, the descendants of the original owners offer guided tours for visitors in various languages. The city center also accommodates a bazaar offering a wide range of Albanian handicrafts for travelers to bring home.

Gjirokastër’s native sons include the late poet and novelist Ismail Kadare, considered one of the greatest writers of the 20th century, and the notorious dictator Enver Hoxha. The house in which Hoxha was born in 1908 now houses the Ethnographic Museum. In addition to its collection of colorful costumes from various regions around the country, accompanied by English language descriptions, visitors can also see the room in which Hoxha was born.

Another reminder of Gjirokastër’s communist past is the tunnel system under the fortress, intended to accommodate local government officials in the event of nuclear war. The city municipality offers guided tours of the bunker. Unlike those in Tirana, which have been fully converted into museums, the underground bunker in Gjirokastër has largely been kept in the same condition as it had been when the communist regime collapsed in 1991.

3. Berat

One of Albania’s most attractive cities, Berat is known as the City of a Thousand Windows on account of the distinctive architecture of the city’s Ottoman-era houses overlooking the banks of the River Osum. During the Ottoman period, the river marked the boundary between the predominantly Muslim quarter of Mangalem on the northern bank and the predominantly Christian Gorica quarter opposite. Berat’s architectural legacy was recognized in 2008 when it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list as an extension to the listing for Gjirokastër.

The major attraction in Berat is the 13th-century castle perched on a hill overlooking the city. A 15-minute climb from the city center, Berat Castle still includes a large residential area within its walls. The castle grounds contain a number of historic churches, and visitors can climb the walls of the fortress near the northern entrance, where there is a large viewing platform to the south overlooking the river.

One of the most interesting sites within the castle grounds is the Onufri Iconographic Museum. Located in the premises of the Church of the Dormition of St. Mary, the museum’s collection contains over 200 Orthodox icons, most of which are painted by the 16th-century Albanian icon painter Onufri or his students and associates.

4. Shkodër

Regarded as the traditional capital of northern Albania, Shkodër dates back to the Ancient Illyrians in the 4th century BCE. Over the centuries, the city’s location on the shores of Lake Shkodër (known in neighboring Montenegro as Lake Skadar) made it an important commercial hub in the western Balkans.

One of the most popular attractions in Shkodër is the Marubi National Museum of Photography, named after 19th-century Italian photographer Pietro Marubi who settled in Shkodër and opened the first photographic studio in Albania. The museum is located on Kolë Idromeno Street, the pedestrianized thoroughfare in the city center. Like the rest of Albania, Shkodër has a history of religious tolerance, and the Ebu Beker Mosque, the Franciscan Catholic Church, and the Orthodox Church of the Nativity are located in close proximity to each other off Kole Idromeno Street.

Strategically positioned on a rocky hill three miles to the south of the city center, Rozafa Castle is one of the most breathtaking sites in Shkodër. From the walls of the ruined castle, which were predominantly built during the period under Venetian rule, visitors can experience stunning views of Lake Shkodër and the city.

For travelers seeking more of Albania’s national beauty, Shkodër serves as the gateway to the Albanian Alps, also known ominously as the Accursed Mountains. The village of Theth, some 40 miles northeast of Shkodër, serves as a popular base for hikers. It is situated at one end of the Theth-Valbona Trail, a 10-mile hike offering incredible views of the mountainous landscape of northern Albania that attracts adventurers from all over the world.

The road from Shkodër to Theth has recently been upgraded and is an easy two-hour drive in a rental car. Most travelers seeking to experience the Theth-Valbona trail prefer to arrange a minivan from Shkodër that will take them to Valbona (often via a ferry on the scenic Lake Komani), where they will stay the night before hiking to Theth the following day. From Theth, another minivan brings the travelers back to Shkodër.

5. Krujë

The city of Krujë, located 20 miles north of Tirana, is inextricably linked with Albanian national hero Gjerj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, who successfully organized Christian resistance to the Ottoman invasion of the Albanian lands for two decades during the second half of the 15th century. During this period, Krujë Castle served as Skanderbeg’s main base of operations and held out against the Ottoman siege on three separate occasions.

While little remains of the original Krujë Castle, visitors can go to the Skanderbeg National Museum, built in the 1970s within the walls of the ruined castle. The museum’s exhibition halls tell the story of how Skanderbeg escaped from Ottoman service to organize the Albanian lords into the League of Lezhë to offer united resistance to the Ottomans. While the displays sometimes lack descriptions in English, paintings, diagrams, digital screens, and models illustrate the major military engagements during Skanderbeg’s Rebellion, including the sieges of Krujë and the battles of Torvioll and Albulena. Replicas of Skanderbeg’s helmet and sword are prominently displayed in the main hall. The originals are in the collection of the Kunsthistoriches Museum in Vienna.

Visitors seeking to bring back a souvenir of their travels to Albania can explore the nearby bazaar, situated off the road leading up to the castle and museum. The shops in the bazaar offer a wide range of trinkets and handicrafts, including busts and images of Skanderbeg in various sizes.

Travelers who are fond of hiking can climb up a trail to Krujë Mountain to the east of the city. Those who manage to reach the summit are treated to panoramic views of the city and the surrounding countryside below in good weather, which is by no means guaranteed. The mountain is also home to a shrine dedicated to the Sufi mystic Sari Saltik, who is widely venerated among Albanian Muslims.

6. Durrës

The coastal city of Durrës, the second-most populous in Albania, was founded as the Greek colony of Epidamnos in the 7th century BCE. After passing under Roman rule in the 3rd century BCE, the city came to be known as Dyrrachium. It served as an important port on the eastern Adriatic and the start of the Via Egnatia, which ran across the Balkan peninsula to Byzantium. During the Roman Civil War between Pompey and Caesar, Dyrrachium served as a key logistics base for Pompey, who successfully defended the port from Caesar’s besieging army in 48 BCE. Pompey pursued Caesar’s retreating army into Thessaly but was defeated at Pharsalus shortly thereafter.

Durrës’ Roman heritage can easily be seen in the ruins of the Roman amphitheater, built during the reign of Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century CE, and the Forum of Anastasius, named after the 5th-century Byzantine emperor born in Durrës in 431 CE. The Byzantines were also responsible for building the city walls that run to the west of the amphitheater. As befitting its past as a major Roman and Byzantine city, Durrës is home to the National Archaeological Museum.

During the later Middle Ages, Durrës experienced centuries of political turbulence as control of the port city passed between the Bulgarians, the Normans, the Angevins, the Serbians, the Venetians, and local Albanian lords until it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1501. The Venetian Tower is an iconic round tower at the southern end of the Byzantine wall built by the Venetians in the 15th century. Durrës continues to function as a thriving port in the 21st century, and visitors can also relax on the long stretch of beach to the south of the city.

7. Vlorë

The third most populous city in Albania, Vlorë played a major role in the country’s independence from the Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the 20th century. During the First Balkan War of 1912-1913, a coalition of Balkan states won a series of victories over the Ottoman Empire. While Albania initially remained loyal to the Ottomans, the fear of being partitioned by Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro encouraged the Albanian nationalist leader Ismail Qemali and his allies to declare independence in Vlorë on November 28, 1912. Albanian independence was subsequently recognized at the Conference of London in July 1913.

The small mansion in which the members of the All-Albanian Congress met to declare independence is now home to the National Independence Museum. The museum’s collection includes many exhibits related to the Albanian independence movement and its leaders, though most labels are only in Albanian.

A 40-minute walk almost directly north from the Independence Museum along Qemali Boulevard and Democracy Street, Vlorë’s Old Town features a collection of colorful houses hosting shops and restaurants, most of which have been recently renovated and repainted. Other attractions near the Old Town include an uninspiring history museum and an imposing communist-era Independence Monument in Flag Square.

Vlorë is situated around 30 miles to the north of the Albanian Riviera. This attractive stretch of coast extends from Palasë to the resorts of Sarandë and Ksamil further south. While most visitors to this part of Albania are attracted to the crystal blue waters and the warm weather, the Riviera also includes several sites of historical interest.

Porto Palermo is home to a well-preserved castle built by Ali Pasha Tepelena, an Ottoman pasha from the turn of the 19th century who ruled over a vast domain incorporating southern Albania, North Macedonia, and most of northern and central Greece. A disused submarine base a short distance up the coast from Porto Palermo has attracted adventurous travelers. While the tunnel itself cannot be accessed without trespassing into an active naval base, the sealed-off western entrance can be reached on foot, a 25-minute walk from the main road. In 2024, the Albanian government announced plans to revitalize the base for military and tourism purposes.

A man wearing the chiton plays the lyre while I admire the hand-laid mosaics and replicas of Greek vases that surround me. Soon, I will be savoring a cup of wine paired with figs, cheese, and nuts. Outside, Matera stands still as the sun sets, and the ancient, labyrinthine city prepares for the night.

What I just described is part of the experience offered by the world’s first “inhabited museum.” Moyseion Matera opened its doors in late 2024, and it is a project that challenges our understanding of heritage. But before we talk more about the Moyseion, a few words about Matera.

The Ancient City of Matera

Matera is located in the region of Basilicata in Southern Italy. Often cited as the third-oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, Matera is a palimpsest carved in limestone, overlooking the Gravina river.

Matera’s old city, known as the Sassi, is often cited as one of the earliest settlements in Italy, going back 9,000 years. The term Sassi comes from the Latin saxum, meaning “rock” or “stone,” and refers to the cave dwellings carved into the rock. By the mid-20th century, Matera’s Sassi had become a site of extreme poverty dubbed the “shame of Italy.” However, things began to change after interventions by the state, the Sassi’s designation as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1993, and the city’s designation as a European Capital of Culture in 2019.

With time, the “shame of Italy” became a popular tourist attraction and, undoubtedly, a picturesque journey through time (just look at the photos). Mel Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ (2004) was filmed in Matera alongside more recent films such as James Bond: No Time to Die (2021) and Wonder Woman (2017).

The Inspiration for a Different Heritage

Matera’s heritage is multifaceted. However, Antonio Panetta, an artist and lawyer with a deep-seated passion for the classical world, thought that something was missing. For Antonio, the missing element was the heritage of Magna Graecia (Great Greece), the long and influential ancient Greek past of Southern Italy; a past that is mostly locked away in museum collections and rather difficult to engage with.

Antonio also felt a personal connection to this ancient Greek heritage, which, to him, deserved a different approach. The Moyseion was his way of connecting with this past. Spanning over 1,000 square meters of excavated rock, the Moyseion is, literally, a piece of Matera’s history. However, the story it tells is much different than anything else one will encounter in the Italian city.

At first glance, what strikes the guest is the attention to detail. The mosaics (my personal favorite), the marbles, the fabrics, the three-legged wooden tables, the ceramics, and even the lighting invite you to leave your comfort zone and enter a space of imagination where the past is lived, not simply viewed. It is also worth noting that every, or almost every, element of the interior is a replica based on archaeological finds and research.

Poetic Archaeology

What distinguishes the Moyseion from a themed resort is its commitment to “reactivate” cultural heritage through poetic archaeology, which it describes as:

“…a form of research and restitution that unites the symbolic with the sensory, the body with the intellect, the word with the gesture.”

In the age of social media, the Moyseion shows that poetic archaeology can reintroduce a different, slower pace and a more conscious approach to engaging with cultural heritage through an emotional and sensory lens.

Beyond Hospitality?

Moyseion Matera is a complex composed of different spaces. There is a main building (lobby and water sanctuary) where the rituals (more on that later) take place. The guests occupy 16 dwellings, which are divided chronologically:

• Three dwellings reflect the Neolithic origins of the site
• Five are dedicated to the Enotrians (the indigenous populations of Southern Italy)
• Eight are tributes to Magna Graecia

A Strange Feeling

The most striking aspect of the rooms is the absence of the contemporary. The modern world, in the form of climate control systems or even mirrors, is carefully concealed to allow for different levels of immersion. This creates a liminal space where the inhabitant is free to engage with the materiality of the past. The textures of natural fabrics, the scent of ancient herbs, and the flickering light work in tandem to dissolve the temporal distance between the 21st century and the past.

Leaving the Moyseion after a few hours feels strange. The sight of technology and tourist crowds suddenly feels foreign. It is only after leaving that you begin to reflect on the experience and contemplate it for what it was: a trip into the past.

The Water Sanctuary and the Rituals

The heart of the Moyseion is the Water Sanctuary, a multilevel complex dedicated to the goddess Demeter. The Sanctuary is inspired by the Hellenistic thermal complexes discovered at sites like Kaulonia and Herakleia. It is a somber, evocative space of stone basins, pools, and floor mosaics that replicate archaeological discoveries.

The space is not a standard spa; it is a site of ritual purification. The dimly lit space, filled with statues of Demeter and stunning mosaics, allows for a spiritual trip into the past that pairs well with the need for relaxation.

It is in this space that a team of classicists and performers guide guests through narratives inspired by the myth of Demeter and Persephone in a ritual that feels ancient and universal at the same time.

Another interesting ritual is the symposium that takes place every evening at 7:00. The symposium features wine, dried fruits, olives, and cheese—staples of Magna Graecia—served on copper trays, accompanied by live music played on period instruments, by musicians in period attire. According to the Moyseion’s website:

“Each night is different, but in every one the wine flows, conversation flourishes, and community is reawakened.”

Ancient Greek Music and Food

One of the most ambitious aspects of Moyseion is its dedication to the intangible heritage of the classical world: music and food. The project collaborates with Lotos Lab in Cambridge to research and revive ancient Greek music.

Upon my arrival, I was greeted by Davide, a musician (originally a bassoon player) undertaking a residency at the Moyseion to study the aulos—an ancient double-piped wind instrument. Davide showed me around the Moyseion while wearing his chiton. After xenia, the welcoming ritual, Davide demonstrated the breathing techniques that allow him to bring the aulos to life and shared how experimenting with the instrument has allowed him to get closer to the way it could have sounded in antiquity.

It was evident that the staff were more than just hospitality workers. As I would discover, there were no “traditional” hospitality workers, but archaeologists, classicists, musicians, performers, costume designers, and dancers. To them, the Moyseion was a form of public engagement and an experimental space where guests and staff alike could explore both tangible and intangible aspects of the past.

This immersion extends to the akratisma, the Moyseion’s version of breakfast. Curated by food anthropologists and historians, the menu is a gastronomic journey into ancient Greece. Melitoutta (a cake of yogurt, honey, and cinnamon), plakous (filo pastry with ricotta, figs, and walnuts), and barley salads flavored with pomegranate and wild onions are served alongside various collections of cheese, bread, and pastry that remain faithful (as much as possible) to the ancient Greek paradigm.

An Immersive Experience

As I leave Matera, I am thinking about Antonio’s reply to my question about whether Moyseion Matera would consider employing digital technologies such as VR/AR in the future. Antonio had replied:

“Everyone thinks that you need technology to make something new these days. But Moyseion shows that you can do something different by moving to the opposite side.”

 

Truly, while in the Moyseion, I didn’t use my phone, forgot about social media, and was immersed in a different world.

Scattered across the Peruvian Andes are architectural marvels that defy explanation. The Inca, masters of stone and landscape, engineered structures so advanced that they have survived for centuries.

Their iconic masonry—massive, mortarless blocks shaped with stunning precision—is a testament to the power of the largest pre-Columbian empire in the Americas. From world-renowned citadels to remote jungle ruins, here are six must-see sites that reveal the incredible story of Inca architecture.

Quick Guide to the Marvels of Inca Architecture

1. Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu tops every list of must-see sites in the former Inca Empire. Indeed, there is no better place to be completely enchanted by the Inca’s mastery of stone masonry, their coexistence with their natural environment, and their relationship with their gods and spirits.

Most modern scholars believe Machu Picchu was built as an estate for Sapa Inca Pachucuti in the mid-15th century, and was actually called Huayna Picchu by the Inca themselves. Declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983, many of its outbuildings, constructed of field stone, had crumbled and have since been reconstructed. Its larger buildings and temples, showcasing the Inca’s expert stone masonry, remained intact, as did many of the farming terraces.

Machu Picchu is nestled in the valley between two enormous mountains, often shrouded by low clouds in the morning, adding to its air of mystery. Its buildings blend neatly into the surroundings, with features like the Temple of the Condor built directly into the rocky terrain.

The Inca’s precision stone masonry, with large stone blocks fit together seamlessly using no mortar, as well as more subtle features of their architecture, like trapezoidal doors and windows, can be seen throughout the site. It also boasts an intihuatana stone, a rock sculpture that researchers believe the Inca used for astronomical purposes. It aligns perfectly with the sun at the solstices and likely had spiritual significance as well, connected to the worship of the sun god Inti.

2. Sacsayhuamán

Sacsayhuamán served as a fortress during the Spanish invasion. It overlooks the ancient Inca capital, Cusco, and is surrounded by a zigzagging wall of precision-cut stone. Much of the site’s architecture was dismantled after the Spanish conquest, with colonizers repurposing the stone for their projects. What remains, however, is still impressive. It showcases the Inca’s renowned precision stone masonry, with some impressively large stone blocks thought to weigh over 150 tons.

While the site’s foundations were largely built into the existing rock, no one knows how the Inca managed to transport the enormous stone blocks there. According to Spanish chronicler Pedro Cieza de Leon, 20,000 men worked on the site, transporting the blocks with sturdy ropes.

Sacsayhuamán was commissioned by Pachacuti, though it had been in use earlier by the Killke culture. Its distinctive zigzag shape is thought by some scholars to represent the head of a puma, a sacred animal in Inca mythology. Housing a temple to the sun, it was used for religious and ceremonial purposes in addition to offering protection for thousands should Cusco come under siege. After the Spanish took hold of Cusco, Sacsayhuamán served as a base for Sapa Inca Manco Capac as he fought to regain control.

A particularly distinctive feature of Sacsayhuamán is the rodadero, in Spanish, or suchuna, in Quechua, both meaning “slide.” A natural rock formation incorporated into the site, these grooved and polished rock slides are zipped along by tourists today—and according to Garcilaso de la Vega, a 16th-century chronicler, they were used by the Inca Empire’s children for the same purpose 500 years ago. The site also hosts the annual Inti Raymi festival, a reenactment of the Inca’s winter solstice celebration.

3. Qorikancha

When the gold-hungry Spanish invaders reached Cusco, they were no doubt delighted to lay eyes on Qorikancha. This complex included the empire’s most significant temple to the sun god Inti.

Inti’s temple had gold-plated walls, golden ornamentation throughout, and an adjoining garden full of gold animal statues. The gold was ultimately stripped, possibly to ransom Atahualpa, whom the Spanish killed anyway. Most of the stone was dismantled and repurposed for new Spanish constructions, and the Convent of Santo Domingo was built atop what remained.

What remains, however, showcases the Inca’s impeccable stonework and provides a unique example of an ancient temple. From the outside, the massive stone blocks that now serve as the foundation of the convent can be observed—they have remained standing for centuries, while the convent on top has had to be rebuilt multiple times after earthquakes.

Inside, several original rooms remain and have been turned into a museum featuring many relics found during excavations at the site, including mummies. In addition to these artifacts, visitors can appreciate some of the unique elements of Inca architecture, including trapezoidal doorways and niches likely used to display the golden decorations the Spanish so coveted.

4. Ollantaytambo

In what is today referred to as the Sacred Valley, the Inca conquered a number of smaller cultures and established thriving estates at key sites to control the valley.

Ollantaytambo is believed to have been occupied by the Huari for several hundred years before the dramatic expansion of the Inca Empire began. Here, the Sapa Inca built a personal estate and began constructing a temple complex. During the conquest, Ollantaytambo acted as an important stronghold for Manco Capac, who, according to Spanish sources, amassed a large army and fought back against the Spanish advance, employing a clever tactic to flood the plain below and mire the Spanish horses in mud.

Nestled between towering mountain peaks, the Ollantaytambo complex features the Inca’s reinforced terraces and a mix of finished and unfinished structures. Carved stone blocks are scattered around the base. Some are mostly untouched, while others are intricately carved into precise shapes with double jambs, suggesting further construction was underway when the site was abandoned.

A climb to the top of the steep terraces reveals the incomplete Temple of the Sun and the Wall of the Six Monoliths. Enormous stone blocks standing over twelve feet tall are fitted precisely together, with no indication of how the Inca managed to get them up there. The view from the top gives visitors a peek at the famous qullqas, storehouses built into the sides of the mountains. These once appeared all over the empire along the Qhapaq Nan.

5. Raqch’i

Raqch’i is located about 70 miles south of Cusco. It was occupied by pre-Inca cultures, including the Wari, before being taken over by the Inca. The god Viracocha, a creator god worshiped by a number of pre-Inca cultures, was said to have performed a miracle here. He led his people, the Canas, to create a shrine, or huaca, to him.

When Sapa Inca Huayna Capac, the last true Sapa Inca who ruled just prior to the Spanish conquest, saw the shrine and heard the story of the god’s miracle, he decided a more impressive dedication was needed. He began construction of a temple and housing for religious figures, such as priests and nuns (called mamacona and yanacona).

What remains of this temple is a 45-foot-high central wall. It stands in sharp contrast to other important Inca sites in its use of both stone blocks and adobe. Precision-shaped stones form a sturdy base for the adobe bricks, with both sections of the wall featuring the Inca’s distinct trapezoidal doors and windows.

The remains of cylindrical columns that once supported the temple, their sturdy stone bases, can also be seen. The height of the wall is particularly noteworthy because most Inca constructions were only one story. This height may have made it one of the tallest buildings in the empire.

Other structural remains in the area include round qullqas. These are noteworthy because they are not made in the traditional Inca shape or style. Researchers suggest they may have remained from an earlier culture and were perhaps repurposed when the temple project began.

6. Choquequirao

Choquequirao, meaning “cradle of gold” in Quechua, was integral to coca cultivation, a much-maligned plant sacred to the Inca. It may have also provided refuge to the Inca resistance during the conquest. Because of its remote location, it remained “lost” for centuries, and excavations have barely scratched the surface of what archeologists believe lies beneath the dense vegetation—excavations began in the 1970s, and an estimated 30% has been uncovered.

What can be seen so far—by those willing to make the multi-day trek, as there is no road or rail access—includes temples, residences, extensive terraces, and Sunch’u Pata, a flattened hilltop ringed with stones that likely served as a ceremonial center. The materials used differ from those at Machu Picchu, ultimately impacting the architecture. In the area, a more fragile rock could not be shaped into the large stone blocks seen elsewhere in the empire.

One of the truly unique features of Choquequirao is its rock art—a whimsical contrast to the Inca’s typical staid stone structures. The site’s terraces have a series of parading camelids (llamas, alpacas, or vicuñas, all native to the region and very similar looking) built into them. Some scholars suggest that this indicates workers from the Chachapoya culture were involved in the site’s construction, as this style of rock art was unique to them during that period. A white quartzite stone was used for this rock art, making it not only stand out but also reflect the morning sun, shining back at the Inca’s most important god.

From Canterbury Cathedral to the Tower of London, England’s map is filled with medieval landmarks. Monuments to hundreds of years of complex history, each showcasing different aspects of England’s medieval past, from the Norman conquest to the Plantagenet kings. From political clashes and family feuds to legendary stories, these places guide visitors on a journey into the past, featuring powerful families and ordinary folks. Let’s venture into a map of medieval England, walking around 10 iconic landmarks.

1. Warwick Castle, Warwickshire

Built on a meander of the River Avalon, Warwick Castle was one of England’s most iconic baronial strongholds. Throughout the centuries, five influential families owned the castle, later converted into a stately home, as earls of Warwick: the Beaumonts, Beauchamps, Nevilles, Dudleys, and Grevilles. The first structure was built on the site of a motte-and-bailey castle erected at the time of William the Conqueror, when the River Avalon served as a defense against the Danish raids.

Today’s building dates back to the 1100s and was commissioned by the 1st Earl of Warwick, Henry de Beaumont. The castle, however, underwent numerous renovations and expansions throughout the centuries. In 1871, a fire ravaged the private apartments, but the main structure was luckily spared.

In the 16th century, Warwick Castle became a key location in the War of the Roses as it was passed to Richard Neville, famously nicknamed “the Kingmaker” for his role in controlling England’s power structure.

2. Tower of London

One of London’s most iconic landmarks, the Tower of London stands on the north bank of the River Thames, on the border with the City of London. Throughout the years, the complex served as a royal palace, prison, arsenal, royal mint, and menagerie. After his 1066 coronation, William the Conqueror was the first to order the construction of fortifications on the site, then a major port area.

The central keep, known as the White Tower, dates back to 1078 and is 90 feet (27 meters) high. Four towers stand at each corner of the building’s walls. Over the years, a series of concentric curtain walls were erected around the central structure. The outer curtain is protected by a moat. The impressive defense system was breached only once during the 1381 Peasant Revolt, when the rebels, protesting a new tax, managed to enter the Tower.

During the Middle Ages, the Tower of London was turned into a notorious political prison and place of execution. The prisoners entered the complex through a watergate, later nicknamed Traitors’ Gate. Among the most famous historical figures imprisoned or executed in the Tower were Guy Fawkes, Anne Boleyn, Thomas More, and the adolescent king Edward V and his younger brother. The Tower of London is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

3. Canterbury Cathedral, Kent

The seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the cathedral is the mother church of the Anglican Communion. The original church, known as Christ Church, was built in the 6th century by St. Augustine of Canterbury, sent to Kent by Pope Gregory the Great.

Damaged by Danish raids in 1011 and a fire in 1067, the church was rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc in 1070 in the Norman style. The key event tied to the Canterbury Cathedral took place a century later, in 1170, when Archbishop Thomas Becket was murdered inside the building by four knights who thought they were acting on an order from King Henry II, involved in a bitter dispute with Becket at the time.

Thomas Becket was buried in the cathedral, and his tomb soon became an important pilgrimage site. Between the late 14th and early 15th century, Geoffrey Chaucer famously centered The Canterbury Tales around a group of pilgrims travelling to the town to visit Becket’s tomb. In 1988, the cathedral was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list.

4. Tintagel Castle, Cornwall

Built in the 1230s by Richard, Earl of Cornwall, Tintagel Castle has long been associated with Arthurian legends. Erected half on the mainland and half on a headland of the Cornish Sea, Tintagel Castle was named as the birthplace of the legendary King Arthur by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae (ca. 1136).

According to Monmouth’s account, King Uther Pendragon, thanks to Merlin’s magic, took on the likeness of King Gorlois of Cornwall, one of his allies, to spend the night with Igraine, Gorlois’ wife. It was during this night that Arthur was conceived. Tintagel Castle is also linked to the legend of Tristan and Isolde, which features it as the location of King Mark’s court.

Researchers have found artifacts dating back to Roman rule near the castle’s ruins. The first building on the site, however, was erected between 350 and 850 AD, and it is likely associated with Dumnonian royalty, the rulers of Cornwall in the late 4th and 8th centuries.

5. Dover Castle, Kent

A castle complex overlooking the English Channel at its narrowest point, Dover Castle is one of England’s larger castles and stands at a key strategic position for the country’s defense. The oldest building on the site is a lighthouse erected by the Romans after their conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD. The Saxons fortified the site around 1000 AD.

William the Conqueror gained control of the keep in Dover around 1066 and ordered that its defenses be improved. Henry II later added further fortifications and built the castle visible today. In the 13th century, the complex withstood two sieges during the First and Second Barons’ War against King John, who lost the Duchy of Normandy to the French in 1204.

During the Napoleonic Wars, a series of underground tunnels was dug under the castle. In World War II, they became the headquarters of Operation Dynamo, the plan organized to evacuate the British Expeditionary Force from Dunkirk.

6. Durham Cathedral, Durham

Constructed between 1093 and 1133, Durham Cathedral’s story begins in 995. According to legend, this year, a group of monks searching for a site to build a new priory after their original one was destroyed by Viking raids, arrived in present-day Durham. They were guided by a vision of St. Cuthbert, their prior, who had been murdered in 687. After burying the saint’s coffin, the monks built a wooden church over it.

In 1018, the original wooden church was replaced by a stone construction, which became a pilgrimage site. Then, in 1093, after the founding of the Benedictine Priory of St. Cuthbert, construction for a new church to replace the Anglo-Saxon one began.

Completed around 1130, the new cathedral is an outstanding example of Roman architecture, and, alongside the nearby Durham Castle, was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list in 1986.

7. Westminster Abbey, London

Westminster Abbey, located just west of the Houses of Parliament in the Greater London borough, stands on the site of a former Benedictine monastery. Queen Elizabeth I turned it into the Collegiate Church of St. Peter in Westminster in 1560.

According to legend, the first Christian monarch of the East Saxons, Saberht, erected a church on a small island in the River Thames. Initially known as Thorne, the building was later referred to as west minster (monastery). By 785 AD, a small group of monks lived on the island. Then, in 1065, a new church, built by Edward the Confessor, was consecrated on the same site.

The following year, William the Conqueror held his coronation in the newly constructed church. Over the following centuries, every British monarch would be crowned there, except Edward V and Edward VIII.

In 1245, King Henry III razed the existing building to erect a new church, the present-day abbey, in the Gothic style, featuring its characteristic pointed arches, rose windows, flying buttresses, and ribbed vaulting. The rebuilding continued intermittently until the Tudor period.

Westminster Abbey is the resting place of 30 royals and several poets. It is also home to what is believed to be England’s oldest door, likely carved in the 1050s.

8. Rievaulx Abbey, North Yorkshire

The ruins of this Cistercian Abbey stand in the valley of the same name in the North York Moors Natural Park. One of the largest 12th-century English churches, Rievaulx Abbey became the “headquarters” of St. Bernard of Clairvaux’s mission in northern England.

A monastic order founded at Citeaux, France, in 1098, the Cistercians sought a solitary and ascetic life under the guidance of the Rule of St. Benedict. In England, the Cistercian order first appeared in Surrey in 1128. Under St. Bernard of Clairvaux’s rule, the order gained considerable influence in the 12th century, especially in Wales and Yorkshire, where it contributed to the areas’ economic progress.

By the end of the 12th century, the community at Rievaulx Abbey had doubled in size, counting 140 monks and about 500 lay brothers. To accommodate the larger number of people, many buildings were expanded or newly built. The abbey’s activity continued until 1538, when it was closed during Henry VIII’s Suppression of the Monasteries.

9. York Minster, York

The seat of the Archbishop of York, York Minster is home to Britain’s largest collection of stained glass. Comprising the so-called Five Sisters Window in the north transept and the Great East Wing, the minster exhibits some of the English medieval glazing extant.

After the Roman conquest, the town of York, then called Eboracum, housed a major army base and administrative center. It was here that Constantine the Great was proclaimed Roman emperor by his soldiers in 306 AD, after his father’s death during a military campaign in northern England.

The first church in York, then an early center of Christianity, was a wooden building dating back to the Anglo-Saxon period. The stone building that replaced this first structure was damaged during the Danish raids of 1075. Construction of a new church began in 1220, after the baronial revolt, under Walter de Gray, who was named Archbishop of York in 1215.

10. Rochester Castle, Rochester

Like York, the city of Rochester first developed as a Roman settlement. Located on the east bank of the Medway River, it controlled a strategic crossing connecting East Kent and London. Fallen into disrepair after the end of Roman rule in the 5th century, Rochester regained relevance in the 7th century, when it was established as a bishopric.

The first castle ever built in Rochester, made of timber and earthworks, dates back to William the Conqueror’s time. Then, in the 1080s, Archbishop Gundulf began the construction of a stone building. In 1127, Henry I gave control of the castle to William de Corbeil, Archbishop of Canterbury, who, in exchange, fortified its defenses.

In 1215, during the First Baronial War, the rebels took control of Rochester Castle. King John retook it after a siege. In 1264, the castle witnessed a second siege led by Earl Simon de Montfort and a group of barons. The King’s Hall and other buildings were badly damaged during the clash. The structure then fell into disrepair.

Inspired by the Portuguese maritime expansion and influenced by Mudejar art and the Italian Renaissance, Manueline architecture is filled with naturalistic symbols, mythological figures, and traditional themes.

How Did Manueline Architecture Appear?

The Portuguese Golden Age, between the 15th and 16th centuries, is a historic landmark in Portugal’s history. During this period, Portugal was an economic, political, and cultural powerhouse only rivaled by Spain and the Ottoman Empire.

Portugal reached this status thanks to the maritime expansion that started with the discovery of the Madeira archipelago in 1419. After that, Portuguese sailors traveled the world, discovered and colonized new territories, and found the maritime route to India. During this period, the Portuguese and Spanish kingdoms also signed the Tordesillas Treaty, which divided the world between themselves.

Commercial trade with the colonies and overseas allies brought wealth to one of the smallest kingdoms in Europe. Such prosperous times attracted foreign business, sailors, poets, scientists, and historians.

Although the foundations of the Portuguese maritime expansion date back to the early 15th century, it was under the rule of King Manuel I, between 1495 and 1521, that Portugal became an overseas empire and a cultural mecca.

During this period, King Manuel I envisioned a new decorative style that reflected Portugal’s prowess, the king’s mightiness, and the country’s achievements. King Manuel I developed a new ornamental style with very few structural innovations, influenced by the French flamboyant Gothic style, Mudejar art, and the Italian Renaissance. The result is a very specific Gothic style with nautical, mystical, and heraldic motifs combined with naturalistic elements.

This new artistic trend kept more or less the same features as the Spanish Plateresque, and church designs kept an East-West orientation. However, the Manueline style also applied vaults with ribs based on corbels.

Manueline Features and Their Symbolism

The most dominant features of the Manueline style are an exuberant form and the naturalistic interpretation of traditional themes. Although these features are easily found in religious and civil buildings, they also appear in other places, such as on pillories, tombs, and jewelry.

Manueline stone sculptures almost always present Christian symbols, popular beliefs, and traditions. As a result, their imagery might reveal moralizing, allegorical, or even erotic content.

In the Manueline style, the most frequent motifs are the armillary sphere, the Cross of the Order of Christ, and several natural elements, such as corals, pine cones, and artichokes. It is also very common to find mythological figures such as mermaids, gargoyles, and ouroboros.

Considering King Manuel I was the first Portuguese person to receive the crown without being directly in line to succeed (all other heirs to the throne were deceased, and King João II named him heir to the throne), Manueline architecture presents several elements of the king’s messianic aspirations.

One symbol of this is the armillary sphere, which King Manuel I received from King João II, who preceded him. Besides representing the king’s power, this motif also represents God’s designs for King Manuel I’s reign as the “Hope of the World.”

Since the Order of Christ’s foundation in 1319, the Cross of the Order of Christ has been used by the Portuguese military. As the maritime expansion progressed and Christianity was spread, the cross was included on Portuguese ship sails. It was used for the first time on Pedro Álvares Cabral’s armada, the fleet that discovered Brazil in 1500. Today, several official entities still use this cross as their symbol, including the Portuguese Navy and Air Force.

Portugal’s coat of arms is another symbol used in the Manueline style. Also known as “quinas” (quincunx), the coat of arms represents the five Moorish kings that King Afonso Henriques, Portugal’s first king, defeated in the Ourique Battle in 1139. The five white dots inside the “quinas” represent the five wounds Christ inflicted during his crucifixion. The coat of arms design has remained unchanged since the 12th century and represents faith, divine protection, and the country’s national identity.

Among the common naturalist elements are corals, algae, ivy, and laurel leaves. Yet, the most symbolic elements are artichokes, which symbolize regeneration and resurrection. There are also pomegranates and pine cones, both symbols of fertility, and dried trees, a common element of the late Gothic style.

Several mythological creatures are present in the Manueline style. The ouroboros, the serpent that bites its tail, is the symbol of the union between the beginning and the end. Mermaids are a profane art motif, mostly related to the sins of the flesh. Other creatures include gargoyles, dragons, and monsters devouring their bodies. In some buildings, you might even find animals performing human actions, such as playing musical instruments.

Since Manueline architecture was born in a Christian kingdom, it is only natural that it includes Christian symbols, such as bunches of grapes, Agnus Dei, and cherubs.

Entangled ropes, nets, chains, and knots are some of the nautical elements present in the Manueline style. However, it is also common to find busts of historical figures, spiraled columns, and pinnacles.

Best Locations to Admire the Manueline Style

You can admire Manueline architecture in Portugal and around the world. Here’s a list of the best places to contemplate this unique style.

1. Jerónimos Monastery (Lisbon, Portugal)

The Mosteiro dos Jerónimos in Lisbon is an iconic landmark in Portugal and one of the best representations of Manueline architecture. Construction began in 1501, under the rule of King Manuel I, and extended over the next century.

While exploring this striking monument, take some time to admire the façade, the church, and the cloisters. The impressive details show how symbolic Manueline-style features are. At Jerónimos Monastery, you can visit the tombs of Luís de Camões, Vasco da Gama, King Manuel I, and his descendants.

Due to the monument’s magnificence and relevance to Manueline architecture, Mosteiro dos Jerónimos was declared a National Monument in 1907 and classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983.

2. Belém Tower (Lisbon, Portugal)

At a short distance from Mosteiro dos Jerónimos, you can visit the Torre de Belém. Built between 1514 and 1520, this landmark is another Manueline style piece of architecture. Although it was built to defend the Tagus River mouth, its design is thought to include the main Manueline elements, such as Portugal’s coat of arms, the armillary sphere, and the Cross of the Order of Christ.

In 1983, Torre de Belém was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Since then, this beautiful landmark has become one of the most visited historical locations in Portugal.

3. Batalha Monastery (Batalha, Portugal)

Mosteiro da Batalha is a mesmerizing Gothic and Manueline monastery. It was built on the location where the Portuguese army defeated the Castilians in 1385 and ended a succession war. Construction began in 1387 and lasted until 1563, covering the reigns of seven kings.

The best places to admire Manueline features at this striking historical site are the pantheon windows, the washroom in the royal cloister, the portal at the Capelas Imperfeitas, and in King João I’s cloister, where you can admire the cross of Christ and the armillary sphere.

In 1983, the monastery was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its architectural and historical significance.

4. Convento de Cristo (Tomar, Portugal)

The Convento de Cristo is a stunning building complex with a fascinating history that started in the 12th century as a Templar castle. Construction work continued across the following centuries, and it was finished in the 18th century. As a result, you will find different architectural elements such as Romanic, Gothic, Manueline, Renaissance, and Mannerist.

At the height of the Portuguese maritime expansion, King Manuel I ordered the construction of a new Manueline church. Inside, you can admire polychrome wood carvings, gilded wood stuccoes, and wall paintings.

However, the most enigmatic feature of Convento de Cristo is the chapter room window, built between 1510 and 1513. This iconic work of art is considered a Manueline masterpiece representing the Order of Christ’s commitment to the Portuguese Maritime Expansion.

The Convento de Cristo was classified as a National Monument in 1910 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983.

5. D. Manuel Palace (Évora, Portugal)

In the 14th century, King Afonso V ordered the construction of a new palace outside the city center. Over the centuries, Palácio D. Manuel was enlarged and refurbished. Besides being a royal residence, this was where Vasco da Gama was invested as commander of the fleet that discovered the maritime route to India.

King Manuel I ordered the palace refurbishment to include several Manueline features. From this renewal, only the Paço das Damas has survived to this day. Here, you will find several Mudejar features combined with naturalist Manueline elements.

6.  São Sebastião Church (Ponta Delgada, Portugal)

São Sebastião Church in Ponta Delgada, Azores is a beautiful church built between 1531 and 1547. Although it was built after King Manuel I’s death, the building was designed with Manueline architecture in mind.

One of the most impressive features is the Manueline portal designed by Nicolau Fernandes and André Fernandes. Here, you can admire the interlaced archivolts forming a canopy surrounded by an arch on colonnettes in addition to the naturalist decoration, heraldry, and angel reliefs.

7. The Fortified City of Mazagão (El-Jadida, Morocco)

Mazagão (present-day El-Jadida, in Morocco) was a fortified city founded by the Portuguese in the 16th century as a trading and military stopover on the maritime route to India. This city was under Portuguese rule until 1769, when the Moroccans finally conquered it.

The city was abandoned and was only restored in the 19th century. Today, you can admire several Manueline-style buildings such as the primitive castle, fortress, cistern, and the churches of Nossa Senhora da Assunção, Piedade, and Nossa Senhora da Luz.

The fortified city is one of the best examples of the exchange between European and Moroccan cultures. That is why, in 2004, Mazagão was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

8. The Cistern of Mazagão (El-Jadida, Morocco)

Cisterna de Mazagão, also known as the Portuguese Cistern, is located in El Jadida (the former Mazagan city), Morocco. The Portuguese built it in 1514 as part of the Mazagan fortress to store drinking water in case of a siege.

The cistern, built in Manueline style, is a square room with 36 vaults resting on 25 columns and a central oculus that allows for water collection and natural light.

In 2004, the cistern was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as part of the Portuguese city of Mazagão. It is also considered one of the seven Portuguese wonders in the world.

9. Nossa Senhora do Baluarte Chapel (Mozambique Island)

Capela de Nossa Senhora do Baluarte, located on Mozambique Island, was built in 1522 following a Manueline design. It is the only Manueline building in Mozambique and one of the oldest chapels on the Indian Ocean.

The chapel has a quadrangular floor plan with a polygonal transept, a ribbed vault, and façades topped by cornices and battlements. It is also decorated with heraldic elements. It was built over an artillery battery, which transformed the chapel into something unique.

After enduring 500 years of corsair attacks, cyclones, and natural erosion, in 2023, Portugal and Mozambique signed a pact to restore the chapel to its former glory.

10. São Francisco Church and Convent (Goa, India)

This Catholic church was built between 1518 and 1521 and is one of the oldest monuments in Goa. It was founded by Friar António Louro, who received explicit orders from King Manuel I himself to establish a mission in the city.

In the 17th century, the original church was demolished. Because only the Manueline portal has survived, the current façade mostly shows Baroque features. Nevertheless, you can still admire a typical Manueline profile with armillary spheres as symbols of King Manuel I.

Inside is a single vaulted nave with side chapels and a transept covered in stucco and paintings. The chancel holds a large gilded altarpiece from the 17th century and a carved tabernacle.

This beautiful historical city withstood the incursions of English privateers, Castilian galleons, and intense seismic activity, which almost destroyed it on more than one occasion. The city is unlike any other in the archipelago. The colorful historical landmarks and the old town architecture reflect the city’s magnificent past. In this article, you can learn all about Angra do Heroismo’s history.

Unravelling Angra’s Past…

Between 1420 and 1430, the Portuguese were the first sailors to set foot in Terceira. They chose a natural bay (the so-called “angra”) that was protected from the winds and deep enough to allow large ships to anchor. The first houses were built on winding streets on the hills surrounding the Angra. At the top, Castelo dos Moinhos was built to protect the residents and watch over the bay.

Over the years, Angra became a crucial stopover for ships sailing between Europe, Africa, and India. Because of that, Angra grew and was elevated to village status in 1478. A few decades later, in 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil, which helped boost the role of Angra as a mandatory stop for ships traveling across the Atlantic.

In 1534, Angra became the first city in the Azores islands. In the same year, Pope Paul III chose Angra as the seat of the Diocese of Angra, which had jurisdiction over the archipelago.

Between 1580 and 1640, Portugal was under the rule of the Spanish crown. As a result, both Portuguese caravels and Spanish galleons filled with riches from the New World would stop Angra from doing business and restocking before departing to Lisbon and Seville. The increasing number of ships harbored in Angra contributed to the construction of Forte de São João and Forte de São João Batista, two important military facilities focused on controlling access to the bay.

In the 17th century, Angra became the Azores’ provincial capital, the seat of the General Government, and the General-Captains’ residence until 1832.

In the 19th century, Angra was the center of liberal ideals in Portugal and became the kingdom’s capital for a brief period. At Angra, during the Portuguese Civil War, King Pedro IV of Portugal reorganized the Portuguese army, abolished several taxes, extinguished all religious orders, and promulgated freedom of education in the country.

Queen Maria II changed the city’s name to Angra do Heroísmo as a tribute to the population’s heroism during the Portuguese Civil War. In 1831, after the constitutionalist administrative reforms, Angra do Heroísmo was the first municipality to be elected.

The historic center of Angra do Heroísmo has been classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983.

9 Landmarks in Angra do Heroísmo You Must Visit

1. Sé de Angra

Located in the historical city center classified by UNESCO, Sé de Angra is the largest and most important religious monument in the Azores islands.

The building you see today was built over the São Salvador church, a small building whose remains you can admire at the high altar, under the chapel.

Construction works at Sé de Angra began in 1570 and followed the designs of the architect Luís Gonçalves. Its goal was to accommodate the seat of the Bishopric of Angra since the original church was considered too small for such a significant role. The cathedral’s construction extended for almost half a century and was briefly interrupted during the 1580 Succession Crisis.

The main façade includes a galilee, a high pediment with a clock (placed in 1782), a belfry, and two side bell towers, with the corbels covered in blue and white tiles. Inside, the chancel stands out with a circular apse and stone vault supported by Ionic columns. While visiting Sé de Angra, take some time to admire the high altar 18th century carved silver frontal and the polychrome tiles. In the side chapels, you can observe the image of Nossa Senhora dos Anjos and Nossa Senhora da Conceição, both dating from the 17th century.

Although Sé de Angra endured several natural disasters, the most significant were the 1980 earthquake and the 1983 fire. During these catastrophes, most of the Baroque decorations and its vast artifact collections were lost.

2. Misericórdia Church

Igreja da Misericórdia is one of the most iconic landmarks in Angra due to its white and celestial blue façade.

The church, designed by Manuel d’Andrade, was built over a 15th-century church dedicated to the Holy Spirit. The foundation stone was laid in 1728 and construction works extended for the following 20 years. It was home to the Carmelite Order and housed the first hospital in the Azores islands. Today, this beautiful landmark belongs to Angra do Heroísmo’s Santa Casa da Misericórdia.

After the earthquake of 1980, this church was one of the least affected in Angra. At the time, all the religious art from the island was deposited here, while the other churches were rebuilt. As a result, Igreja da Misericórdia was the last to be reconstructed.

Igreja da Misericórdia shows a rectangular floor plan with two towers flanking the façade, each topped by a stone lantern tower. Above the portico, you can observe the Royal Arms, surmounted by a niche in the middle of the pediment, a clock, and a small bell supporting an iron cross. The pediment is flanked by two small quadrangular bell towers. The single-nave plan shows a wide chancel, six side chapels, and a gallery with balconies overlooking the inside of the church.

Igreja da Misericórdia is a National Monument and is part of the historical city center of Angra do Heroísmo, which is classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

3.  São Francisco Church and Convent

The convent and Church of São Francisco is one of the largest churches in the Azores islands.

The first Franciscan monks arrived in Terceira Island in 1456. Shortly after, they built a convent and a hermitage. However, these buildings were demolished and a new church was built.

The convent’s construction works began in 1663 and three years later it was time to start building the church. In 1672, both buildings were complete. Dom Frei Lourenço de Castro, Angra’s Bishop at the time, blessed the Convent and church of São Francisco after a procession that included the island’s civil, military, and ecclesiastical authorities.

With the extinction of religious orders in 1834, the convent and church facilities housed Liceu de Angra do Heroísmo, a public school created from the teaching reform. Today, the Convent and Church of São Francisco are home to the Angra do Heroísmo Museum.

4. São Gonçalo Convent and Church

Located at Angra’s historical city center, Convento de São Gonçalo is the largest and oldest convent in the city.

In 1542, Pope Paul III authorized the construction of a new convent that would be home to the first Poor Clares nuns in the Azores islands. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the increasing number of nuns led to the expansion of the original facilities, which included the construction of a new church.

When the first monasteries closed, following the extinction of the military orders, the Convento de São Gonçalo was the only one open. As a result, it sheltered nuns from other convents on Terceira Island.

By the end of the 19th century, the convent’s cloister was severely damaged by an earthquake. Hence, the Tuscan columns with connubial arches had to be replaced by pilasters.

This building complex comprises one cloister dated from the original construction in the 16th century. A second cloister was added in the 17th century and includes cells, kitchens, and refectories on the upper floor and the original ovens and various outbuildings on the ground floor.

The single-nave church presents two superimposed choirs separated from each other by an oval railing. Around them, you can admire Baroque wood carvings, large tile panels, and oil paintings on canvas from the 17th to the 18th century. The Baroque elements contrast with the Rococo altarpiece of the high altar.

5. Paços do Concelho

Paços do Concelho is a unique example of a town hall built from scratch in Portuguese territory.

This 19th-century building was the third to house Angra do Heroísmo City Council. In fact, it was built over the original 15th-century town hall.

Paços do Concelho shows a simple rectangular floor plan and sober regular lines with a similar window design on all the façades. The façades have two floors sectioned by pilasters with the same modeling and ending in a full platband.

Inside, you can see a central vestibule for distributing space, from which the stairs to the main floor develop, with converging arms and a lower section. At the top of the staircase, you can admire the bust of Prince Henry the Navigator and beautiful stained-glass windows. On the upper floor are traditional Arraiolos tapestries and jacaranda furniture pieces with engraved wood carvings.

6. Palácio dos Capitães-Generais

Palácio dos Capitães-Generais is an iconic landmark at Angra’s historic city center that reflects the city’s economic power in the 16th century.

In 1572, King Sebastião ordered the construction of a new convent and college for Jesuits to educate, instruct, and catechize the population. However, its construction began almost 40 years later. The building complex was only occupied in 1620. This Jesuit college was an important education center in the Azores, especially for teaching Latin, philosophy, theology, and scholasticism.

In 1760, the Jesuits were expelled from Terceira Island. A few years later, the Marquês de Pombal established a new administrative, civil, and judicial organization in the Azores Islands. As a result, these services were centralized in Angra, and the Captain-General (Capitão-General, in Portuguese) was the most powerful figure on the island. Over time, the old convent and college were gradually transformed into a palatial residence.

During the Portuguese Civil War, this palace housed the Junta Provisória. Later, during Queen Maria II’s reign, it housed the regency government of the Kingdom of Portugal. In 1832 and 1901, Palácio dos Capitães-Generais served as a royal residence for King Pedro IV, King Carlos I, and Queen Amelia.

In 1971, during the Atlantic Summit, the palace welcomed Georges Pompidou and Richard Nixon, whom Marcelo Caetano had invited over for dinner. Today, Palácio dos Capitães-Generais is one of the official residences of the President of the Regional Government of the Azores.

While visiting this magnificent landmark, you will notice a combination of Mannerist and Baroque influences. The palace presents a rectangular floor plan with two floors surrounding a courtyard. The single-nave church is dedicated to Saint Inácio de Loyola. Inside, you can observe an impressive art collection from the 18th and 19th centuries, which includes Chinese porcelain, furniture, and oil paintings.

7. Alto da Memória

Alto da Memória is a commemorative monument in Angra’s historic city center with a mesmerizing view over the coastline. Here, you can admire Angra’s Bay, Forte de São Sebastião, Fortaleza de São João Batista, and Monte Brasil.

This massive landmark was built in the 19th century to celebrate the arrival of King Pedro IV on Terceira Island during the Portuguese Civil War. It was built over Castelo dos Moinhos, a 15th-century fortress, the first of its kind on the island.

The obelisk, which shows evident Masonic symbolism, was built between 1845 and 1856. The first stone laid at the construction site was retrieved from the city’s quayside. Popular belief states this was the stone the king first stepped on when he landed in Terceira in 1832. The remaining stones used in the obelisk came from Castelo dos Moinhos.

8. São Sebastião Fort

São Sebastião Fort was the first fortress built in Angra do Heroísmo.

Built in the 16th century, this fortress was intended to protect the coastline and defend Pipas harbor. At the time, this was the most important harbor in Terceira Island since it was here that ships from India and Brazil stopped on their way to Portugal.

Architect Tomaz Benedito de Pesaro designed the Italian-styled fortress, which was finished under the rule of King Sebastião. The fortress was built to adapt to the land morphology. It shows a bastion layout with an irregular pentagonal plan and narrowing curtain walls.

Inside the fortress is the old governor’s house and a cistern with a capacity of 33,000 liters of drinking water.

9. São João Baptista Fort

Forte de São João Baptista was also known as Monte Brasil fortress due to its location. It crossed fire with Forte de São Sebastião to protect Angra’s Bay, Pipas Harbor, and armadas from India and the American continent.

It was built between 1593 and 1636 under the rule of King Filipe I of Portugal (and II of Spain). Giovanni Casale, Tibúrcio Spanochi, and Anton Colla were the team behind the fortress designs. The result is one of the largest and most impregnable fortresses in Portuguese territory.

After the Restoration of Independence in 1640, the fortress was renamed Fortaleza de São João Baptista as a tribute to the Portuguese King João IV. It is one of the largest fortresses built by the Spanish in their conquests of the 16th and 17th centuries.

In the fortress, you can visit the Governors’ Palace, the Capela de Santa Catarina de Sena, and the Igreja de São João Baptista.

Italy is one of the most gastronomically passionate nations on Earth, where every bite of food feels like a religious experience. It is no surprise, given the country’s rich history, agricultural abundance, and unwavering dedication to perfecting simple recipes. In Italy, food is a daily cause for celebration.

The most iconic Italian foods have gained global recognition. Each boasts centuries of tradition, local ingredients, and often humble origins. Here’s the fascinating history behind some of Italy’s most celebrated culinary creations.

1. Pizza Margherita

Few dishes are as universally loved as pizza, and Pizza Margherita is where the legend began. Legend has it that this most beloved creation originated in Naples in 1889 when Queen Margherita of Savoy visited the city. Weary of the ubiquitous and elaborate French fare served to the nobility at the time, the Queen requested local pizzaiolo Raffaele Esposito to prepare an assortment of “pizzas” for her to try. Esposito is said to have prepared a variety of pizzas yet there was one in particular, a “unique” creation using ingredients representing the Italian flag, that captured the Queen’s heart (and likely, taste buds). The Monarch declared it to be the winner, Esposito named the pizza after her, and the rest, as they say, is culinary history.

Cute story, if only it were true. Well, at least part of it isn’t. By now, historians agree: the tri-colored pizza was already a well-established staple in Naples and not tailor-made to order for Queen Margherita’s visit. The most likely scenario, however, is that it was re-branded and renamed in her honor.

At its heart, the pizza margherita has remained humble, yet the quality of its ingredients has drastically improved. Now, it is considered a masterpiece: a thin crust of dough blanketed with velvety crushed tomatoes (San Marzano, if possible), creamy white mozzarella, and fresh green basil. The lot is finished off with a generous drizzle of extra virgin olive oil. Quality over complexity, the ultimate axiom of authentic Italian food

Over the years, pizza has become a symbol of Italy’s culinary artistry, found with an array of toppings all over the world (p.s. pineapple is still not allowed).

2. Lasagna (Bolognese)

Lasagna Bolognese is one of many gastronomic treasures from Emilia-Romagna. It consists of fresh pasta sheets, rich meat ragù, creamy béchamel sauce, and Parmesan cheese fusing in perfect harmony. While the dish’s origins date back to ancient Rome, the version we know today likely emerged in Bologna during the Renaissance.

Bologna’s hearty ragù, a slow-simmered sauce of ground beef, pork, and tomatoes, is the show’s real star. Traditionally, the pasta is made with spinach, giving it a subtle green tint that contrasts beautifully with the creamy layers.

The origin of this Italian food staple is so old that even Marco Polo wrote of it in his journals. Many variations exist throughout Italy. In the south, where the bechamel is replaced by ricotta, and tiny meatballs and sliced boiled eggs are added, it is called lasagne. This is the more recognizable spelling to foreigners, likely due to the influx of southern Italian immigrants abroad, especially to North America.

3. Focaccia

Focaccia, the beloved Italian flatbread, predates the Roman Empire. It originated in Liguria (of Cinque Terre fame), and is a simple yeast bread recipe with a much higher water-flour ratio than usual, making it soft and fluffy. Left to rise twice and lathered in abundant olive oil, the bread is baked to golden perfection. Traditionally topped with rosemary, sea salt, or olives, focaccia’s soft, airy texture makes it the perfect accompaniment to soups, salads, and cheeses.

Historically, focaccia was a food of necessity, baked by sailors and farmers who needed a durable, portable meal. Because of its higher water content, focaccia lasts much longer than ordinary bread. Over time, this simple yet irresistible Italian food became an authentic symbol of Ligurian cuisine. Nowadays, the northwestern region boasts myriad variations, and in Genova, in particular, it is a traditional breakfast staple accompanied by a cappuccino. Yes, you can dip!

4. Pesto Genovese

The famous green sauce from Liguria (of focaccia fame), is another testament to the delectable power of simple, fresh ingredients. Its origins date back to the ancient Romans, who routinely crushed herbs and garlic to preserve food. The modern recipe, featuring basil, garlic, pine nuts, Parmesan, and olive oil, emerged in Genova in the 1800s.

The most staunch Ligurian purists still pound pesto into creation with a mortar and pestle. Try a homemade version of this Italian food treasure once, and you might never go back to a jar.

Did you know? Just a few years back, Genova’s airport was the first in the world to ease liquid restrictions on hand luggage, to appease passengers who wanted to take jars of the mouthwatering Italian food home. 

5. Gelato

Italy’s most popular summer treat has a history that goes back thousands of years, although the version we enjoy today seems to have reached worldwide fame around the 18th century. Early versions of gelato can be traced to ancient China and Egypt, where crushed ice was mixed with fruit juice and honey. Yet in the 16th century, it was Florence’s Medici family who elevated the simple refreshment to an art form by hiring artisans like Bernardo Buontalenti, who perfected creamy, churned gelato using milk. If you wish to savor the “original” gelato, travel to southern Italy, where sorbetto, made of crushed ice, is the preferred way to refresh on a steamy summer’s day.

6. Parmigiano Reggiano

Spicy and delectable Parmigiano Reggiano has been crafted in the Reggio Emilia and Parma regions for more than eight centuries. It is traditionally made from raw cow’s milk and aged for at least twelve months. The long timeline helps develop the cheese’s signature nutty flavor and granular texture, the same way it has for hundreds of years.

In the Italian food scene, Parmigiano Reggiano is almost sacrosanct. Locals grate it over pasta and soups or eat chunks with fruit or dipped in balsamic vinegar. Production of the cheese is highly regulated, ensuring each wheel meets the strictest standards. In Italy, this means the origin of the milk, the aging of the cheese, and even the diet of the cattle are regulated. Only wheels with the embossed Parmigiano Reggiano emblem are guaranteed to be legitimate. All others (like “Parmigiano” in Italy or “parmesan” in English-speaking countries) are imitations.

7. Spaghetti Carbonara

Spaghetti Carbonara is the ultimate comfort food and undoubtedly one of the most exported Italian foods. Yet its origins are still fiercely debated in Italy. While local urban legends say the dish was definitely created by Italians many moons ago, the first time the recipe as we know it today appeared in a cookbook was in the 1960s in the United States so that’s likely where the modern version was invented.

This less romantic historical version, now widely thought to be credible, incenses many an Italian foodie. A similar recipe did exist in Italy before that, but it had ingredients no self-respecting Italian would ever include nowadays, such as bacon and cream. The horror!

The modern Roman classic combines eggs, Pecorino Romano cheese, guanciale (cured pork jowl), and freshly cracked black pepper. Nothing else. The dish is incredibly simple, yet the magic lies in the technique: cooking the pasta to al dente perfection and blending it with the guanciale, cheese, and raw eggs creates a velvety emulsion that clings to every strand.

8. Prosciutto (Crudo)

There are cured meats all over the world, and then there’s prosciutto. Or, more correctly, prosciutto crudo. This dry-cured ham relies on just two key ingredients: high-quality pork and sea salt. The curing process is painfully slow, but this is what allows the ham to develop its delicate, buttery flavor without any cooking or smoking.

Prosciutto dates back to Roman times and is one of the few Italian food gems still made using traditional methods passed down through generations.

In Italy, the term “prosciutto” refers to ham in general but it is typically called prosciutto crudo for dry-cured, uncooked ham (like Prosciutto di Parma) and prosciutto cotto for cooked ham. Outside of Italy, particularly in English-speaking countries, prosciutto usually refers only to the dry-cured, uncooked variety, which can lead to confusion. To avoid misunderstandings if you’re ever in Italy, know that locals call both types prosciutto, so you must clarify if you (or they) mean “crudo” (uncooked) or “Cottoo” (cooked).

9. Risotto (alla Milanese)

Golden, delicious, and luxurious, risotto alla Milanese owes its signature color and flavor to saffron. Legend has it that this dish was born in 1574 when a glassmaker’s apprentice in Milan jokingly added saffron, used as a dye in stained glass at the time, to a pot of rice at a wedding feast. The experiment was a colossal hit, and the dish became a staple of Milanese cuisine. The real story, however, is traced back to a cookbook printed by famous Milanese chef Felice Luraschi in 1829, where the ritual of roasting rice grains in butter and slowly adding stock to it was first described.

Rice porridge of all denominations had long since been cooked in Asia, yet the grain was introduced to Europe “only” 2,000 years ago. In Italy, it found its ideal fertile plains in the northern valleys of the Po River. Today, the Po Valley remains one of Europe’s top rice-producing regions, and the grain has become intrinsic in northern Italian cuisine.

Made with Arborio rice, butter, onions, white wine, and abundant Parmesan cheese, this creamy dish is slow-cooked with saffron-infused broth. Risotto, in Milano, is typically paired with ossobuco.

10. Gnocchi

Italy’s pillowy potato dumplings have a history as comforting as the dish itself. While earlier versions date back to Roman times and were made with flour and water, potatoes, introduced to Europe from the Americas in the 16th century, transformed the recipe into the gnocchi we know today. The recipe spread far and wide, and hybrid versions of related potato dumplings are found all over Europe and beyond.

Every region of Italy adds its own flair. In Piedmont, gnocchi di patate reigns supreme, while Sardinia boasts gnocchetti, made with semolina flour. Traditionally boiled and served with sauces like pesto, butter, and sage, or tomato, gnocchi’s soft texture and versatility make it the most comforting Italian food of all.

11. Cannoli

A mainstay of Hollywood mafia films of the 1970s and 80s, cannoli are undoubtedly the most famous pastry from Sicily. Traditionally a dessert for celebrations, cannoli feature crispy, fried shells filled with sweet ricotta cheese. The classic recipe often includes hints of orange zest, chocolate chips, or pistachios, although nowadays, you’ll find them in 101 variations.

The creamy and crispy delight traces its origins to the Arab influence on the Italian island during the 9th century. Although, how they were created remains a mystery. It is often said that the concubines of Arab emirs in the region created these delightful pastries in the privacy of the harem, using ingredients like ricotta, honey, and almonds, which were staples of Arab cuisine. The cannoli’s cylindrical shape and indulgent filling were thought to symbolize… ahem… fertility, adding a layer of sensuality to their culinary creation. When Arab rule collapsed in Sicily, and pious monasteries replaced decadent harems, nuns reportedly adopted and preserved the recipe, turning a once-foreign treat into an absolute centerpiece of Sicilian dessert culture.

12. Tiramisu

Tiramisu, arguably the most known and adapted Italian dessert, is not nearly as historic as the other dishes on this list or as many Italians believe. They will still argue over the “correct” recipe as if it is centuries old!

The desert’s name means “pick me up,” a nod to its energizing ingredients: espresso-soaked ladyfingers layered with mascarpone cheese, eggs, sugar, and a dusting of cocoa. Although its exact origin is contested, the highest probability is that it was first invented in the Veneto region, merely six decades back. One of the most tantalizing historical versions links tiramisu to a brothel, where it was routinely served to patrons and madams alike to energize them. This version, however, is likely to be more folklore than fact.

In this article, you will learn all about Madeira, the first land the Portuguese discovered in the 15th century, the UNESCO heritage of Laurissilva Forest, and several historical landmarks that have witnessed the passage of time.

Madeira Over the Centuries

The first reference to the Madeira archipelago appeared in the Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms, written in 1385 by an unknown author from the Kingdom of Castile. It mentions the existence of three islands named Leiname, Diserta, and Puerto Santo.

However, in 1418, the Portuguese sailors João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira were the first to set foot on these islands. They discovered the islands of Madeira, Deserta, and Porto Santo. The sub-archipelago of Ilhas Selvagens, which is part of Madeira Natural Park, was discovered a few years later.

The islands were uninhabited and offered unique weather conditions and a strategic location. Its proximity to the African coast and warm climate allowed for its colonization and economic development.

In 1425, under the rule of King João I, sailors Tristão Vaz Teixeira, Bartolomeu Perestrelo, and João Gonçalves Zarco and their families were the first settlers in the Madeira archipelago. Over the years, commoners, a few members of the low nobility, and some former prisoners settled here.

To succeed, these settlers had to develop agriculture in a wild and pristine environment. As a result, they cleared a portion of the Laurisilva Forest and built water canals to transport the abundant water to the island’s driest areas.

During the settlement’s first years, fish, fruit, and vegetables were the main food sources. Over time, the economy developed with the export of cedar and yew wood and dyes, such as indigo and dragon’s blood.

In 1450, agriculture had developed enough to allow the export of wheat to mainland Portugal and the African colonies. However, when wheat production declined, Prince Henry the Navigator ordered sugar cane to be planted, which was considered a rare product at the time.

In the 15th century, Madeira was a key trading post since it connected Funchal to Africa, mainland Portugal, and Europe. During the 15th and early 16th centuries, sugar cane production helped Madeira’s economy thrive. European merchants settled here looking for profitable trade. However, in the second half of the 16th century, sugar cane production declined due to plant diseases.

At the same time, Madeira faced serious competition from the Canary and São Tomé islands and Brazil. These events led farmers to replace sugar cane with wine production. From the 17th century onward, Madeira wine became increasingly popular and the main export product.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, most of the island’s visitors were scientists, wealthy aristocrats, and the ill. All of them were attracted by the island’s therapeutic properties. As a result, the first information guides for visitors appeared in 1850 and focused on the island’s history, geology, flora, fauna, and traditions. These were the foundations of the tourism industry in Madeira, which is the main economic activity of the archipelago.

Top Sites in Madeira for History Lovers

1. Laurisilva Forest

The Laurisilva Forest is a 20-million-year-old subtropical humid forest and the oldest natural landmark in Madeira. It dates back to the Miocene and Pliocene periods of the Tertiary Epoch, which makes it a living fossil. This vast ecosystem is composed of endemic species of Macaronesia. Some of them are centenarian trees of the Lauraceae family.

Today, this UNESCO World Heritage Site covers around 20% of the island’s land. However, when the first settlers arrived in Madeira, the Laurisilva Forest covered most of the island.

These settlers removed several portions of the Laurisilva Forest to make Madeira their home. They also built “levadas” (Madeira’s water canals), to transport water from the most humid and rainy regions to the island’s driest areas.

The best way to see these man-made structures is by hiking. At Levada do Moinho, Ponta de São Lourenço, and Lagoa do Vento, you will find some of the best trails to see the levadas.

2. The Traditional Santana Houses

These triangle-shaped houses with thatched roofs make for the most recognizable postcard images of Madeira Island. These houses are the remnants of the island’s first constructions during colonization.

Since there was little hard stone available, builders used the island’s abundant wood for these structures. For the roofs, they used the straw from cereal plantations to cover people’s houses and animal shelters. It was possible to adjust them according to the seasons, all year round, making these homes cool in the summer and warm in the winter.

These houses come in two designs: built on the ground on wooden logs and built on basalt stone walls, with the ground floor comprising three rooms, a living room, and two bedrooms. On the upper floor, there were other bedrooms and a storage area where seeds for the next year’s crop were stored.

3. Santa Clara Convent

Convento de Santa Clara is one of the oldest buildings in Madeira. It was built between 1489 and 1497, following the authorization granted by Pope Sixtus IV in 1476. D. Manuel (1469-1521), Duke of Beja and future king of Portugal, requested the noblemen, knights, squires, and good men of Madeira to make donations for the construction of the island’s first convent for women. The new building was intended to house noble women and the founder’s daughters.

In 1834, the extinction of religious orders in Portugal meant that all religious buildings and their contents would be transferred to the Portuguese government. As a result, once the last nun, Mother Abbess Maria Amália do Patrocínio, died, the convent and its assets were included in the Public Treasury. Over the next two centuries, the convent shifted hands between public institutions and the Portuguese Government. In the 20th century, especially in the 1940s, the building was refurbished, which included several repairs and restoration works.

You can admire Sant Clara’s varied architectural features, ranging from Late Gothic, Manueline, Renaissance, Mannerist, Baroque, Rococo, and Neoclassical. Such variety derives from several reconstructions over the centuries.

The convent’s irregular plan is composed of several articulated areas such as the church, atrium, choirs, tower, cloister, and chapels. Besides the impressive architectural elements, there are also stunning gilded altarpieces, tile panels, sculptures, paintings, and jewelry.

4. Funchal Cathedral

Sé do Funchal has been a National Monument since 1910, and it is one of the few buildings that has remained intact since its original construction.

This cathedral was built between 1493 and 1517 under the rule of King Manuel I when the first church on the island became too small for so many worshipers. The new church was elevated to a cathedral by Pope Leo X, who established the bishopric of Funchal. At the time, Funchal became the largest diocese in the world, covering all territories the Portuguese had discovered.

The cathedral is the best example of Manueline architecture in Madeira. Architect Pêro Anes was the man responsible for the cathedral’s design.

Inside, you can admire a Gothic-style structure with a Latin cross plan. One of the most notable features is the alfarje ceiling, made of local cedar wood in Mudejar style, with gilding and ivory incrustations. At Sé do Funchal, you will also find 16th-century altarpieces and 18th-century tile panels. The chancel’s chair shows images of saints, prophets, and apostles in 16th-century attire and depicts the daily life of the population on Madeira Island.

5. Colégio Church

Igreja do Colégio, formally known as Igreja de São João Evangelista, is a Mannerist-style church built between 1629 by the Jesuits on the island.

After its completion, construction works extended until the 18th century due to its exuberant decorations. As a result, you will find several Baroque features instead of the expected Mannerist elements.

After the Jesuits‘ expulsion in 1760, the church remained closed until 1846. That was when the civil governor José Silvestre Ribeiro ordered restoration works and reopened the building for worship.

While visiting this iconic landmark, you will find a longitudinal plan, three chapels, and a gilded woodwork interior, which is considered one of the most valuable in Portugal. Inside, check out the 11,000 virgins’ chapel with its painted ceiling and tile panels.

Until the end of the 19th century, this was the largest building complex on Madeira Island. Today, Igreja do Colégio is part of Universidade da Madeira and Universidade Católica.

6. São Tiago Fort

Due to its strategic location as a safe harbor, Funchal was often raided by pirates and corsairs in the 16th century. As a result, several fortresses were built in the city and all around Madeira Island.

Built in the 17th century, Fortaleza de São Tiago is one of these fortresses. Its location was chosen to defend the city’s coastline.

Over the centuries, this landmark was refurbished several times and served several purposes. It housed the British military during the Peninsular War and the Portuguese Military Police. In 1803, it served as a refuge to the population affected by the alluvium. Later, between 1992 and 2015, it was home to Madeira’s Museum of Contemporary Art.

While visiting the fortress, you will notice its irregular star-shaped plan with three cylindrical batteries facing the ocean and keeps with semi-spherical roofs.

7. Baltazar Dias Municipal Theater

Teatro Municipal Baltazar Dias is an exceptional building that houses Funchal’s main theater room.

Following the demolition of the city’s original theater, Funchal’s population rallied to demand the construction of a new cultural center. Almost 50 years later, the City Council fulfilled the people’s request. Tomás Augusto Soler was the architect behind the elegant design, inspired by Teatro de São Carlos in Lisbon.

Master builder Manuel Francisco Pereira was hired at the same time as the Italian architect and set designer Luigi Manini. Together, they completed this exquisite building in 1887. However, the Theater was only inaugurated the following year.

Although the theater has had many names over the centuries, the name Teatro Municipal Baltazar Dias is a tribute to a blind playwright and poet born on Madeira Island.

Once inside the performance hall, take some time to admire its Italian-styled décor and the painted ceiling.

8. The Shrine of Nossa Senhora da Paz

Santuário de Nossa Senhora da Paz is the largest monument on Madeira Island.

Madeira was bombed twice by German submarines during the First World War. The population prayed to Our Lady of Monte for peace, which resulted in a vow made by the parish priest, Father José Marques: he promised to build a memorial to thank God and Our Lady if peace ever arrived.

Fortunately, the war ended the following year. As promised, in 1923, the first stone was laid, and the monument was completed and inaugurated in 1927.

At 850 meters (2,788 feet), this shrine shows a five-and-a-half-meter-tall (18-foot) statue of Mary with Child, placed on a 20-meter-tall (65-foot) pedestal with bronze reliefs and four Roman columns.

At the base, you can admire a bronze bas-relief depicting the Virgin’s apparitions to the shepherds. Around the base is a rosary made with chains from ships torpedoed in the port of Funchal during the Great War and stones from the Santo António stream. Close to the shrine is the Nossa Senhora da Paz chapel, inaugurated in 1928.

9. Lavradores Market

Locals and visitors like to explore the Mercado dos Lavradores looking for the island’s freshest produce. Yet, few people notice the unique architectural features of this historical building.

Mercado dos Lavradores, built in 1940, is one of the best examples of the architecture of Estado Novo, a dictatorial regime established in Portugal between 1933 and the Carnation Revolution in 1975. Here, you will also find elements of Art Déco from the 1930s and Modernism.

The Mercado dos Lavradores project was intended to serve as Funchal’s main supplier. The main entrance is decorated with several tile panels depicting local daily life. These were painted by João Rodrigues and produced at Fábrica de Loiça de Sacavém, a historical Portuguese factory founded in 1850.

10. Madeira Ethnographic Museum

You can learn more about the island’s culture and traditions at Madeira’s Ethnographic Museum. The museum is installed in a 17th-century manor house. The property had several owners until it was finally converted into an industrial unit in 1853. A few years later, in 1862, an animal-drawn sugar cane mill and a still for distilling alcohol were built there.

In the 20th century, Madeira’s Regional Government decided to install an ethnographic museum designed by the architect João Francisco Caires. The museum was inaugurated in 1996.

While visiting the museum, you will find a permanent exhibition of artifacts related to production activities, transport, local homes, and local trade.

As civilizations built cities and developed writing systems, they also created monumental structures designed to endure. From sacred temples and royal tombs to vast defensive walls, these monuments proclaimed power, honored the divine, and celebrated rulers. Many still stand today, and the following ten ancient monuments remain among the most remarkable wonders of the ancient world.

1. Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt

Constructed circa 2550 BC, the Great Pyramid of Giza stands as a testament to ancient Egyptian engineering and remains one of the most iconic structures in human history. Commissioned by Pharaoh Khufu, this monumental edifice originally stood at 146.6 meters, making it the tallest man-made structure of its time. Its precise alignment with the cardinal points and the use of approximately 2.3 million limestone blocks, each weighing between two and 15 tons, continue to intrigue scholars and visitors alike.

Visiting the Great Pyramid offers a unique journey into antiquity. Explorers can venture into the pyramid’s interior, navigating narrow passages that lead to the King’s Chamber, where Khufu’s sarcophagus resides. The surrounding Giza Plateau also hosts the pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure, along with the enigmatic Great Sphinx.

2. Machu Picchu, Peru

Rediscovered in 1911 by American archaeologist Hiram Bingham, this 15th-century sanctuary has since captivated the imagination of historians and travelers alike. Constructed around 1420 under the reign of Emperor Pachacuti, Machu Picchu is believed to have served multiple purposes, ranging from a royal estate to a religious site. Its strategic location and sophisticated design highlight the Incas’ advanced understanding of agriculture, astronomy, and urban planning.

Accessible primarily via the town of Aguas Calientes, Machu Picchu can be reached by train or by trekking the famed Inca Trail. Upon arrival, the site offers a labyrinth of stone structures, terraces, and plazas to explore. Notable features include the Temple of the Sun, the Room of the Three Windows, and the Intihuatana stone, an ancient astronomical clock.

3. Stonehenge, England

Recent research has unveiled intriguing insights into Stonehenge’s origins and purpose. A study suggests that the monument was constructed to unify early British farming communities during a period of cultural transition around 2500 BC. The discovery that the central Altar Stone was transported from Scotland indicates a collaborative effort among distant communities.

In recent years, significant efforts have been made to preserve Stonehenge and its surroundings. The closure of the A344 road and the removal of nearby parking facilities have restored the site’s tranquility. A visitor center, located approximately two kilometers from the stones, offers exhibitions and amenities, enhancing the overall experience while maintaining the monument’s integrity.

4. Petra, Jordan

Nestled in the rugged mountains of southern Jordan, Petra, also known as the “Rose City,” is a testament to the ingenuity and architectural prowess of the Nabateans. Established as early as the 5th century BC, Petra served as the capital of the Nabatean Kingdom and flourished as a vital hub along ancient trade routes, connecting Arabia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean.

Visitors to Petra are greeted by the iconic Al-Khazneh (The Treasury), a majestic façade carved directly into sandstone cliffs, blending Hellenistic and Near Eastern architectural styles. Beyond the Treasury, the city reveals a labyrinth of rock-cut tombs, temples, and a Roman-style theater, all reflecting the Nabateans’ sophisticated craftsmanship and their ability to harmonize their structures with the natural landscape.

Begin your journey by walking through the Siq, a narrow gorge leading to The Treasury, and continue to landmarks such as the Monastery (Ad Deir) and the High Place of Sacrifice.

5. Colosseum, Italy

Constructed between 72 and 80 AD under the Flavian emperors, the Colosseum, originally known as the Amphitheatrum Flavium, stands as a testament to ancient Roman engineering and architecture. This elliptical amphitheater measures approximately 189 meters in length and 156 meters in width, making it the largest amphitheater ever built. Its innovative design featured a complex system of vaults and could accommodate between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators.

The Colosseum hosted a variety of public spectacles, including gladiatorial combats, animal hunts, mock naval battles, and theatrical performances. These events were not only a source of entertainment but also a demonstration of the empire’s wealth and power. The arena’s floor, now exposed, covered an elaborate underground structure known as the hypogeum, where animals and performers awaited their turn in the spotlight.

6. Chichén Itzá, Mexico

Founded around the 5th century AD, Chichén Itzá emerged as a prominent center in the Yucatán Peninsula. The city’s name translates to “At the mouth of the well of the Itza,” referencing the nearby cenotes that were vital to its inhabitants. Over the centuries, Chichén Itzá evolved into a significant political and economic hub, reflecting a fusion of Mayan and Toltec influences.

Structures such as the Temple of the Warriors and the observatory known as El Caracol highlight their advanced engineering and astronomical knowledge. The Great Ball Court, the largest in Mesoamerica, stands as a reminder of the ceremonial ball games that held both ritualistic and political significance.

Visiting Chichén Itzá today offers a window into this rich heritage. To fully appreciate its grandeur, consider exploring the site during the spring or autumn equinox. During these times, the play of light and shadow on El Castillo creates the illusion of a serpent descending the pyramid, a phenomenon that continues to captivate observers.

7. Great Wall of China

The Great Wall of China stands as a testament to the nation’s enduring legacy, weaving through centuries of history and spanning thousands of kilometers. Its origins trace back to the Spring and Autumn Period (771–476 BC) and the Warring States Period (475–221 BC), when various states constructed fortifications to defend their territories. These fragmented walls were later unified under the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC) by Emperor Qin Shi Huang, marking the inception of the Great Wall as a continuous structure.

Subsequent dynasties, notably the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD), reinforced and expanded the wall to protect against northern invasions. The Ming-era contributions are among the best-preserved sections today, characterized by robust brick-and-stone construction that snakes across China’s diverse terrain.

Archaeological advancements continue to shed light on the wall’s multifaceted purposes. Recent studies suggest that, beyond its defensive role, the Great Wall also served to regulate trade and migration, underscoring its significance in economic and social contexts.

The Great Wall offers diverse landscapes and experiences. The restored pathways at Badaling provide an accessible introduction to its grandeur, while the quieter trails of Mutianyu wind through lush forests and rolling hills. At Jinshanling, the rugged terrain reveals a mix of preserved and wild sections, offering an unfiltered glimpse into the Wall’s past.

8. Angkor Wat, Cambodia

Angkor Wat, located near Siem Reap, Cambodia, is the world’s largest religious monument, covering approximately 162.6 hectares. Constructed in the early 12th century under King Suryavarman II, it was originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu before transitioning to a Buddhist temple in the late 12th century.

Visiting Angkor Wat offers a profound glimpse into Khmer architecture and ancient Cambodian culture. The temple’s grandeur is evident in its central quincunx of towers, symbolizing Mount Meru, the mythical axis of the universe. Intricate bas-reliefs adorn the walls, depicting epic narratives from Hindu mythology, including the churning of the ocean of milk. The temple’s westward orientation, atypical for Hindu temples, has intrigued scholars, suggesting possible funerary associations.

9. Easter Island Moai, Chile

In the vast expanse of the southeastern Pacific, the island of Rapa Nui, known to many as Easter Island, stands isolated, its shores caressed by relentless waves. Here, scattered across the landscape, stand the moai: colossal stone figures, their enigmatic gazes fixed upon horizons unknown.

Centuries ago, the Rapa Nui people embarked on an ambitious endeavor. Between 1250 and 1500 AD, they carved nearly 900 of these monolithic statues from volcanic tuff, each representing deified ancestors, their purpose intertwined with the islanders’ spiritual and social fabric.

The tallest among them, known as Paro, towered at almost 10 meters and weighed 82 tons, a testament to the ingenuity and dedication of its creators. However, by the late 19th century, all moai had fallen, possibly due to internal conflicts or external influences.

Visiting Rapa Nui offers a profound connection to this legacy. Sites like Rano Raraku, the volcanic quarry where many moai remain in various stages of completion, and Ahu Tongariki, home to 15 re-erected statues, provide insight into the island’s rich history.

10. Tikal, Guatemala

Nestled within the dense rainforests of northern Guatemala lies Tikal, one of the most significant archaeological sites of the ancient Maya civilization. Established around the 4th century BC, Tikal evolved into a dominant political, economic, and military center during the Classic Period (c. 200 to 900 AD). At its zenith, the city boasted a population estimated between 100,000 and 200,000 inhabitants, reflecting its prominence in the Maya world.

The city’s monumental architecture is a testament to Maya engineering prowess. Among its most iconic structures is Temple I, also known as the Temple of the Great Jaguar, a 47-meter-high pyramid that served as the tomb of the ruler Jasaw Chan K’awiil I. Opposite stands Temple II, the Temple of the Masks, which offers panoramic views of the Great Plaza. The North Acropolis and Central Acropolis further showcase intricate complexes of temples and palaces, each narrating stories of Tikal’s dynastic lineage.

Visiting Tikal today provides a unique opportunity to delve into Maya history amidst a vibrant ecosystem. The surrounding Tikal National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, encompasses 57,600 hectares of lush jungle, home to diverse wildlife such as howler monkeys, toucans, and coatis.

Must-See Monuments (Quick Reference)

For those who choose to make the drive from San Diego, California, to Glacier National Park, Montana, there are many popular places to stop during the two to three-day journey. The most popular include the Las Vegas strip, Salt Lake City, and Yellowstone. But there are also many smaller places of great historical significance that it is worth adding to your itinerary. From forts to mansions to massacre sites, here are nine essential stops for discovering the lives of the region’s Native Americans and early settlers.

1. Old Las Vegas Mormon Fort State Historic Park, Nevada

The first stop out of San Diego will take five to six hours to reach. After passing the Mojave National Preserve and crossing the state line into Nevada, you’ll arrive at the Old Las Vegas Mormon Fort, built by Mormon missionaries in 1855. It was the first permanent non-native settlement in the Las Vegas Valley. Established alongside a spring-fed creek, it quickly attracted traders, gold seekers, emigrants, and the native Paiute. Many traveling to California along the Old Spanish Trail would stop at the fort.

Built with adobe bricks and consisting of two bastions and four walls 150 feet long, the fort has undergone excavations to reveal a range of items that are thought to be of Anasazi and Paiute origin. Today the site is managed by the Mormon Church, and you can see the remains of the fort and historic artifacts in a small museum.

2. Ancestor Square, St. George, Utah

Two hours northeast of the Mormon Fort, you will arrive in Ancestor Square in the southeastern tip of Utah. Ancestor Square is a cluster of buildings in the heart of St. George. Founded by Mormon pioneers in 1847 and led by a man called Brigham Young, St George is described as the “art and soul” of Utah.

One of the smallest buildings but perhaps most interesting is the Jailhouse, thought to have been built by Sheriff Hardy around 1880. You can also visit the home of Brigham and Amelia Young, where President Brigham Young resided between 1870 and 1877. There is also the Tabernacle, built in 1867, which now serves as an event venue, the Old Courthouse, built in 1876, which now houses the St. George Chamber of Commerce, and the Opera House, built in 1913, which is now a museum. There are also plenty of quaint shops, cafes, and restaurants to patronize.

3. Cove Fort, Utah

From Ancestor Square, take the 1-15 north past Cedar City and Beaver until you reach a ghost town called Sulphurdale, located in Millard County, Utah, where you will find Cove Fort. It is located between Beaver and Fillmore, which was the capital of the Utah Territory at the time. The fort, constructed with stone quarried from mountains nearby, is laid out in a square, with each wall about 30 meters long. The distinct walls are made up of dark limestone and black volcanic rock. The stone construction is key to its survival over the years. Many other forts were made of wood and have not survived.

Just like today, many 19th-century travelers used the fort as a place to rest and eat during long journeys. The kitchens could serve food to up to 75 people at a time. There was also a resident farrier or blacksmith who shod oxen and horses and likely repaired wagon wheels. The fort has been open to the public since it underwent some restoration in 1988.

4. Albert Fisher Mansion, Salt Lake City, Utah

Drive two and a half hours northbound on the 1-15, past Utah Lake, situated to the east of Provo, and arrive in the heart of Salt Lake City, the capital of Utah. You’ll arrive at Fisher Mansion to discover the story of Albert Fisher. Born in Germany in 1852, he joined the Salt Lake City Mormon community in his 20s. In 1869, the transcontinental railroad connected the Atlantic with the Pacific. The Mormons wanted to prevent their gold coins from going east, so they became a self-sufficient community, building furniture, firearms, and any other product they needed. Fisher became the brewmaster of the Mormon brewery.

After a falling out with the other Mormons, Fisher sought an investor, purchased 15 acres of land on the east bank of the Jordan River, and built his own brewery, Fisher Brewing Company. His home, Fisher Mansion, is open to the public and offers a look into how Albert lived at the time. The company was closed during prohibition, reopened in 1934, and sold in the 1950s. It was revived in 2017 by Tom Fisher Riemondy, a great-great-grandson of Albert Fisher.

5. Bear River Massacre Site, Idaho

Drive north past the Great Salt Lake for two hours to Bear River. Nestled between Preston and Winder are the Bear Massacre Site and Memorial Park. On January 29, 1863, the United States Army, led by Patrick Edward Connor, attacked an encampment belonging to the native Shoshone tribe. Bear Hunter, a Shoshone Chief, led the defense and was killed in action. It is considered a massacre, with the soldiers destroying lodges and wheat supplies, capturing resources such as horses, and killing hundreds of Shoshone men, women, and children.

The attack on the encampment followed rising tensions between the native Shoshone and the Mormon settlers. The Mormons were consuming significant food resources and forcing the Shoshone to move to areas where food was scarce, leading to famine and destitution. From their first regular interactions with these new settlers in 1847 through to the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, relations grew increasingly fraught. A young Shoshone man, Pugweenee, was hanged on the belief he had stolen a horse, and the Shoshone retaliated days later by killing young settlers. Today, the area is a sacred burial ground for the Shoshone people.

6. Fort Hall Replica and Commemorative Trading Post, Idaho

An hour north of the Bear River is the Fort Hall Replica and Commemorative Trading Post, built in 1834. It served as a trading post until it was demolished in 1863. The replica that now stands in its place gives insight into the 19th-century lifestyle of the Indigenous Americans, pioneers, and travelers passing through the area. In its day, the fort saw gold seekers, fur traders and trappers, and other prominent figures pass through its gates.

The replica was built using descriptions from people who had visited the original building, along with the original plans from the Hudson Bay Company. Keeping true to the original, the replica was constructed using traditional methods and effectively built by hand.

7. Menor’s Ferry Historic District, Wyoming

Three hours northeast of Fort Hall, across the state border into Wyoming, you will find Menor’s Ferry Historic District. Situated on the west side of the Snake River is a replica of a country store. The original was erected by William D Menor, who arrived in Jackson Hole in 1894. He built his homestead there and constructed a ferryboat, a replica of which can also be seen on site. This ferryboat became a vital means for crossing the Snake River, which became impassable in many places during periods of high water. Many residents used the ferryboat to cross the river and collect timber, gather food, and hunt wildlife.

The ferryboat consists of two pontoons carrying a simple platform, with cables looped through the boat to prevent it from being washed downriver. For 50 cents, a wagon and team could cross, and it was only 25 cents for a horse and rider. When the river became too low, a cable car was available for up to four passengers. Although the homestead was originally built to tap into the area’s natural resources, Bill Menor and his small community of neighbors fell in love with the beauty of Jackson Hole.

8. Fort Ellis Historical Marker, Montana

Just over four hours north of Menor’s Ferry, through Yellowstone National Park, and across the state lines into Montana, is Fort Ellis. Similar to Bear Falls, here, three tribes, the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, struggled with the growing presence of the settlers from the mid-1800s. In a bid to control their newfound trails, such as the Bozeman Trail, which connected southern Montana (gold rush territory) to eastern Wyoming (the Oregon Trail), the US Army launched military campaigns targeting the Indigenous tribes, building forts to support their military presence. Following the death of John Bozeman in 1867 at the hands of Native Americans, Fort Ellis was constructed.

The fort became a key location for the next 20 years, playing a role in the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876 and the Battle of the Big Hole in 1877. Today, many visitors pass through this corridor to access Yellowstone National Park, ski the mountains, and fish and hunt. Fort Ellis no longer stands, but a historical marker marks its place.

9. Fort Connah, Montana

Four hours northwest of Fort Ellis is Fort Connah, a cluster of three buildings, one of which, the storehouse, is an original construction and may be the oldest building in Montana. The fort was largely active between 1846, when it was first erected, and 1871, as a Hudson Bay Trading Post. Replica buildings reflect how the trading post would have looked some 170 years ago.

The trading post, built by the Scotsman Agnus McDonald, was the last of its kind. McDonald named the fort for Connen in his home country. He later changed it to Connah to make it easier for the Native Americans, including the Kootenai, Pend d’Orielle, and Salish tribes, to pronounce. Before 1910, when settlers were encouraged to migrate to the area, the prairie had not seen a plow. It was largely home to local Native American tribes, who used the trading post. In 1871,  the US government forced Hudson Bay Trading to abandon it.