When Jesus multiplied the fishes and the loaves, he was not just doing another miracle. Christ’s and the disciples’ concern about the crowd’s nutrition highlights the socio-economic context he found himself in, revealing a brutal class divide in Roman Judea. This miracle took on a deeper meaning as the humble lunch of a poor boy brought relief from not only their spiritual, but also their physical hunger.

The Poverty and Hopeful Expectations of First Century Palestine

In the parables of Jesus, he repeatedly opted for metaphors and wording that had to do with nature and farming. That was because the people he was teaching all understood one language: that of agriculture.

Zooming out beyond a Biblical timeline into secular history, these were the days following Alexander the Great. Rome was in power, enforcing strict taxation laws on Jews and other displaced peoples living in the region. Many families were living a hand-to-mouth existence and were forced to give the best of the land (wheat, olive oil, wine) to the ruling empire.

The Jews cried out to their God to send the promised one who would save them from the oppression and suffering they faced, just like they were saved from slavery in Egypt about 1500 years prior. What they prayed for was a mighty warrior king on a stallion, but they got a humble rabbi riding a donkey instead. 

Wheat for Elites and Barley for Beasts

While wheat was seen as a luxury grain, because of its softness and light color, coarse and heavy barley was all that remained for the poor. 

“As a foodstuff it [barley] is of somewhat doubtful merit, suited to irrational animals and men in unhappy circumstances.”
– Philo, a Hellenistic Jew and philosopher

In ancient Jewish literature (like what we know as the Old Testament), barley was described as the food of beasts.

• Prophetic imagery: The prophet Elisha compares ‘the finest flour’ directly with barley in 2 Kings 7.
• Book of Hosea: A man has to buy back his wife who turned against him and chose a life of prostitution. In the end, the price Hosea pays to get her back is 15 shekels of silver and some barley (Hosea 3:2). 

“Barley bread, which was the ancient foodstuff of the common people, has now been relegated to the use of beasts.”
– Pliny the Elder

How Roman Taxation & Temple Offerings Pushed Local Farmers to the Brink

The severe tax burden on Judean peasants surfaced often in the life and teachings of Jesus: “Is it right for us to pay taxes to Caesar or not?” (Luke 20:22). 

Rome imposed land tax (10-20%), poll tax (one annual payment per person), and further indirect tolls. Yet the remainder of their money had to be given to the Temple. The heavy burden of the law of Moses did much more than state that a person must tithe 10% to the “church.”  They also had to bring countless other offerings and gifts in order to obtain righteousness before God. 

All of this is before wicked religious leaders, like money-loving Pharisees, who twisted the law to get a second 10%, the first fruits of the harvest, and even more. The taxation and offerings took more than 40% of a family’s income, forcing farmers to sell their best crops and subsist on inferior grains like barley.

Social Standing Measured by the Daily Loaf

What a person ate in that time and day said a lot. This is part of the reason why the New Testament authors make such a big deal of Jesus dining with sinners. Consider, for example, when Jesus goes to the house of Zaccheus the tax collector for a meal. 

Instead of suffering with the crowds, it seemed to them that Jesus often accepted invitations (and even invited himself) to dine with the wealthy. Even one of his twelve disciples, Matthew, was a tax collector before joining Jesus’ company!

In a society where social standing was measured by the daily loaf, Jesus’ actions infuriated the crowds. Christ’s ability to cross over socio-economic barriers was a major reason why the people eventually turned on him and killed him.

In Roman Judea, food security and malnutrition were a reality in the first century, echoed in the believer’s prayer: “Give us today our daily bread”.

Recontextualizing the Dietary Reality of the Ancient Poor

When this reality is applied to the miracle where Jesus used five barley loaves and two fish to feed thousands, the event takes on new meaning. The disciples’ concern about the hungry crowd in the middle of nowhere makes it clear that there was truly no food. Interestingly, this crowd resembles the hungry Israelites in the wilderness after the Exodus before God rained down manna on them for sustenance.

The boy’s lunch of five barley loaves indicates the extreme poverty of the crowd. When Jesus took the boy’s bread, it was not the food of the rich, but of the poor. Yet afterward, there were even leftovers. He had turned their scarcity into abundance. 

This socio-economic perspective of a well-known miracle exemplifies the value of using social history to understand ancient texts like the Bible— the five barley loaves reveal the harsh truth about what life was like in Roman Judea.

When we think of mythology, we are often talking about gods, monsters, dragons, and super-powered heroes. Most mythology worldwide predates Christianity, and while Christianity contains fantastical elements, much of it has been documented within such a short timeframe after the actual events that, at minimum, the mythological element is removed.

Mythology tends to develop through various stories that were rooted in some facts, and often those facts are not completely known, so people created stories to fill in the gaps (or to sell books). For Christianity, much of the development happened in the late medieval era, where we see post-Biblical stories arise regarding Christian heroes and the challenges they faced.

How Did Centuries of Medieval Writers Construct the Legend of King Arthur?

Likely the most prominent figure of Christian mythology is that of King Arthur. The development of his story is long and draws on many early medieval stories and concepts. Even Joseph of Arimathea, in whose tomb Jesus Christ was laid, plays a part. King Arthur’s myth is inseparable from another prominent Christian myth, that of the Holy Grail. King Arthur is likely an amalgamation of various historical figures who lived beginning around 500 AD after the Anglo-Saxon invasion of England. 

When the Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 1100s wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, Merlin, Guinevere, Mordred, and Avalon entered the story. The Holy Grail and several other knights entered around that time from France. By 1485, Sir Thomas Malory, in his Le Morte D’Arthur, had combined all the elements of the classic Arthurian myth.

How Did Biblical Serpent Symbolism Evolve Into the Myth of St George?

The story of a hero slaying a great beast is common throughout the mythology of every culture. Hercules and Gilgamesh are among the examples we have in the West, but the one most closely aligned with Christianity is St George and the Dragon. The tale in its full form arises in Jacobus de Voragine’s Golden Legend, a chronicle of mostly fantastical lives of saints. The myth of St George may have come from a similar tale of St Theodore Tiron, who was a soldier-turned-saint who lived in the 300s AD.  

Serpent images were common in Christian iconography as a representative of Satan (from the Garden of Eden in Genesis). The snake images gradually turned into dragons, and by the 900s it was Theodore slaying a dragon, sometimes alongside George. St George would replace Theodore in a more developed myth by the time de Voragine wrote the Golden Legend.

How Christian Faith Transformed a Pagan Epic

One of the traits of Christian myth is that it tended to replace pagan ideas and images within stories with Christian ones. Such replacement is probably most prominent in the Beowulf story.

Beowulf comes along at a strange time historically. Two cultures were clashing in the 800s around when Beowulf was written—pagan northern Europe and Roman Catholic southern Europe. 

The story combines Biblical elements, such as Grendel being a descendant of Cain, and the aid of God in Beowulf’s success, with what may have been historical Scandinavian figures such as Hrothgar, Halfdan, and Halga from the 500s AD. What developed was a rich tale of good versus evil, courage, and death. The story does not appear to have a specific literary ancestor, and almost disappeared, as only a single copy from around 1000 AD survived.

Medieval Chroniclers Recorded and Exaggerated Local Legends

In addition to King Arthur and the Holy Grail, St George, and Beowulf, medieval writers often collected and exaggerated local stories. Sometimes the stories were adapted from pagan tales, others from strange miracles supposedly performed by some saints. What resulted was an often questionable historical record as to those figures. However, the usefulness of the stories allows us to see into the past regarding the cultures and people of those times, which gave rise to the stories of the fictional heroes we have today.

Scattered on the hillside in seemingly random groups, the hungry crowd sat filled with anticipation for what would come next: Would it rain manna from Heaven like in Moses’s day?

When Jesus gathered a young boy’s simple lunch and raised it in blessing, his every move was calculated, and his message was loud and clear.

The Context of First-Century Judean Politics

About 1500 years after Moses led the Israelites out of Egyptian captivity as slaves and into the wilderness, there were rumors spreading of a second Moses. Finding themselves in a desperate situation once more, the people remembered the promise Moses made to them so many years ago:  

“The Lord your God will raise up
a prophet like me from among you”
(Deuteronomy 18:15)

While they were free from the Pharaoh’s rule and forced labor of generations prior, the Jews faced the tense socio-political environment of Roman-occupied Judea during the first century.

Their every move was watched, while they prayed for the day their deliverer would come in all God’s glory. Their expectation was not only for someone like Moses, but for the king promised throughout the Scriptures and the prophets, the one who would be the Son of God and the Son of Man. 

The Exodus Blueprint and the Law of Moses

Biblical theologians would be careful to call Jesus a second Moses or a new Moses, since that is not exactly what Scripture states:

“Moses was faithful as a servant in all God’s house…
But Christ is faithful as the Son over God’s house.”
(Hebrews 3:5-6)

Yet there were some unmistakable similarities in the actions of Jesus and those of Moses, as evidenced in the miraculous feeding of the five thousand. The parallels find their origins in three specific parts of the well-known warning that Moses’s father-in-law, Jethro, gave him in Exodus 18.

• “Select capable men from all the people and appoint them as officials…”  (v.21)  
• “…over thousands, hundreds, fifties and tens.” (v.21) 
• “…and all these people will go home satisfied.” (v. 23)

Jesus also chose capable men, divided the crowds into groups, and all the people were satisfied.

Organizing a Multitude into Military Units

First-century Jewish peasants awaited their coming king, while they held onto the law taught by Moses in the wilderness. Here, they found themselves in a wilderness again with someone like Moses leading them.

The Roman Empire was not unaware of Christ’s presence and popularity in the region. The strict rule of Rome would have monitored the growing group following Jesus, as evidenced in the Gospels when centurions approach him for healing. Yet Jesus blatantly made dangerous decisions, sending a clear message. 

• He utilized the disciples as capable men (Luke 9:15).
• He had them sit down in groups of fifty (Luke 9:14 and Mark 6:39).
• They all ate and were satisfied (Luke 9:17).
• They were in a remote place (Matthew 14:15).
• The crowd was “like sheep without a shepherd” (Mark 6:34).
• Afterward, the people called him the prophet (John 6:14).

Why the Wilderness Was the Space for Rebellion

The similarities summarized above would not be lost on the Jewish crowd or even the Roman soldiers patrolling nearby or monitoring the situation from within. Gathering outside the urban center, in a crowd of over five thousand, being organized into groups, listening to teaching, and receiving a meal was not a normal event then—just as it isn’t today.  

Throughout Scripture, the wilderness or desert takes on the metaphoric and literal role of the location where pivotal moments took place. Consider John the Baptist, the desert prophet who wore camel hair clothing and ate locusts and wild honey. Perhaps it is no coincidence that three of the four Gospels mention the beheading of John by the Roman client king, Herod, right before mentioning the miracle at hand.

The crowd re-enacted the Exodus in real time, receiving not only spiritual food (teaching) but also physical food (bread and fish) from Jesus.

The Threat to Rome and the Fear of a New Moses

Such a structured mobilization in the desert would cause warning signals to flare for Roman officials and local elites (like the Herodians). 

Compare this with what happened when Theudas gathered a group at the Jordan River to watch him split the water as Moses and Joshua did. He was killed and beheaded in a surprise attack by Rome before he could even try to enact his miracle. 

The crowd understood the political significance of what had happened in this wilderness revolution. We already discovered that they called Jesus a prophet (like Moses) after the miracle, but there was one more thing they wanted to do before Jesus got away from them: They wanted to take him by force and crown him king (John 6:13).

This is but one example of how utilizing social history reframes ancient religious narratives into complex studies of imperial friction and political theater.

In 1309, Pope Clement V moved the papal court from Rome to Avignon in France. Over the next 70 years, the curia grew deep roots in Avignon. The cardinals lived lavishly, and it seemed that the political pressure exerted by the French monarchy would keep the Papacy in southern France for the foreseeable future. That is, until the culmination of a series of political events in Italy, and the urging of a remarkable mystic from Siena, combined to force Pope Gregory XI to move the Papacy back to Rome.

Catherine of Siena

Catherine was born in 1347, in the Republic of Siena, in what is today central Italy. From the age of five, she reported having visions of Christ and the Apostles, and by age seven, Catherine swore that her life would be given to serving God. When she was 16, she was expected to marry, but Catherine went on a hunger strike until her parents relented and backed off their demand. She lived like a monastic, confining herself to a small room in her family’s house, spending most of her time in silence and solitude.

At the age of 21, Catherine claimed that she experienced what she called a Mystical Marriage, wherein she married Jesus. After this marriage, she received a vision from Jesus telling her to leave her cloistered life of seclusion and go out into the world. She helped the sick, the poor, and the downtrodden of Siena. Between her charity and her vivid descriptions of the visions she claimed to regularly receive from God, she gained a reputation as a holy woman. This reputation was further strengthened when, in 1375, she claimed to have received the stigmata, the physical representation of Christ’s wounds during his crucifixion, and an extraordinarily powerful manifestation of holiness in Catholic tradition.

This holiness brought her into the political world, and eventually to a fateful meeting with the pope in Avignon.

Pope Gregory XI

Pierre Roger de Beaufort was born into nobility in Maumont, France, in 1329. He was a nephew of Pope Clement VI, and thanks to this family connection, he was appointed as a cardinal at the age of 18. He studied law and theology and gained a good reputation among the papal court. When Pope Urban V died in 1370, the conclave unanimously chose Pierre to be the next pope. He chose the name Gregory XI, but since he was not a priest, he was quickly ordained the day before he was formally crowned Pope.

Gregory’s pontificate saw conflict all over Western Europe. He tried to mediate the Hundred Years’ War between England and France, but ultimately failed. He also found himself in conflict with many of the Italian cities throughout his reign. The Italians were bitter about the Papacy being moved to France and sought to expand their own power and influence at the expense of the Papal States.

The first conflict was with Milan, whose Duke, Bernabo Visconti, seized Reggio and other papal fiefs. Gregory excommunicated Visconti, hoping that would be enough to make the duke back down. However, Visconti thought so little of the act that he imprisoned the legates who brought him the Bull of excommunication and refused to release them until they ate the parchment on which it was written and the lead papal seal that affixed it.

After this humiliation, Gregory declared war on Visconti. The war raged for three years until Milan sued for peace in 1375, gaining favorable terms in the settlement thanks to some well-placed bribes of papal officials.

Intercession

After the war with Milan concluded, the city of Florence organized a broad anti-papal coalition of Italian cities. Perhaps remembering the humiliation he suffered at the hands of the Duke of Milan, Gregory acted swiftly and harshly. He excommunicated all members of the Florentine government, he removed legal protections that had formerly prohibited the arrest and enslavement of Florentines throughout Europe, and placed Florence under interdict. The interdict banned all religious services except baptism, last rites, and certain Masses on holy days.

The results were catastrophic for Florence, and they sought a mediator to negotiate an end to such harsh reprisals. They turned to Catherine of Siena. She had already been in contact with Gregory while the crisis was brewing, writing to him to ask for leniency. As the crisis deepened, the Florentines requested that Catherine journey to Avignon and negotiate with Gregory to plead their case in person. They hoped that such a holy woman would be the best representative for their cause.

Catherine’s Mission

While Catherine did indeed plead the case of the Tuscans before the pope, she would ultimately prove unsuccessful. However, she had a secondary goal in traveling to Avignon. She had come to believe that it was her mission to return the Papacy to its rightful place in Rome.

While we do not know exactly what was said in their personal audiences, Catherine continued to write letters to the pope while in Avignon, which survive to this day. It is important to note that Catherine was illiterate until late in her life, so most of her letters were dictated, allowing us, in a way, to hear her very voice echo across the centuries. These letters show an extraordinary level of directness and boldness. The urgency she felt in what she saw as her divine mission can be seen in this excerpt from early April 1376:

“Come, come, don’t resist any longer the will of God who is calling you… The starving little sheep are waiting for you to come and take possession of the place of your predecessor and model, the apostle Peter… You, as Christ’s vicar, ought to be residing in your proper place. Come! Come! Come!”

Challenges

While it is impossible to know anyone’s true thoughts, let alone those of someone who lived over 600 years ago, it is likely that before Catherine’s arrival, Gregory had already considered moving the Papacy back to Rome. The discontent in northern Italy and the Papal States themselves only grew worse the longer the pope and cardinals stayed in France, and some sources indicate that Gregory had made a private vow to return to Rome if elected Pope. However, the papal court had grown deep roots in Avignon, and the vast majority of cardinals and officials preferred to remain there rather than journey back to Rome.

Catherine herself speaks to the forces trying to keep Gregory in Avignon when she wrote in early August 1376, “May a blazing flame of charity so burn in you that you will not let yourself listen to the voice of incarnate devils, will not let yourself take the advice of evil counselors. Their foundation is in self-centeredness, and as I understand they want to frighten you by saying you’ll be killed. They say this to keep you from coming. And I am telling you, in the name of Christ crucified … not to be afraid for any reason whatsoever.”

She saw the struggle over where the Papacy would reside through the lens of the cosmic battle between good and evil, between God and Satan. Those trying to keep the pope in Avignon were on the side of the devil, but she spoke in the name of Christ. This view is even more explicit in a letter from mid-August 1376, where she said, “I understand from the note you sent me that you are being harassed by the enemies of all good, who never stop tempting you.”

Gregory’s Relationship With Catherine

Gregory’s letters to Catherine do not survive, so we only have one side of the conversation. However, Catherine will often refer to what Gregory had written to her in her letters, so we can somewhat reconstruct the flow of their conversation.

Gregory clearly placed a high value on what Catherine said and thought, often asking her for advice and explaining his difficulties to her. He would also ask her to pray for him, a powerful request for someone who regularly received visions from God.

From some of Catherine’s letters, it seems that Gregory was not a very forceful personality, easily swayed depending on who he spoke with last. In one extraordinary instance, Catherine writes that God said, “Tell him the more opposition he encounters … the more he will feel a courage growing within him that no one can take away, though this is contrary to his natural bent.”

Catherine’s letters show an extraordinary familiarity and boldness, astonishing for a laywoman addressing the head of Western Christendom. She regularly calls Gregory “Babbo,” which was a term roughly equivalent to “Daddy” in the Tuscan dialect, a word used by young children to address their father.

In early September 1376, Gregory wrote to Catherine saying that he was threatened with death if he returned to Rome. Catherine is not moved by the threat. She does not try to console Gregory by saying that he will not be killed; instead, she says, “You will be more concerned about God’s honor and the salvation of your sheep than about yourself—like a good shepherd who should lay down his life for his sheep.”

Catherine was very consciously drawing on the biblical imagery of Jesus as the good shepherd, and also on the long tradition of Christian martyrdom. She further says, “I beg you in the name of Christ crucified not to be a timid child but a courageous man.”

The Return to Rome

Political realities in Italy and Catherine’s forceful personality combined to finally push Gregory to take the momentous decision to return to Rome in 1376. It was not a popular decision among the papal court. Pierre Amelia, Bishop of Senigallia, later wrote an account of the return to Rome, where he exclaimed, “God! If only the mountains would move and block our journey!”

Gregory XI entered Rome on January 17, 1377. Unfortunately, he was already in poor health, and he died just over a year later on March 27, 1378.

The conclave after his death is infamous due to the angry mob that surrounded the Apostolic Palace, implicitly threatening violence if an Italian wasn’t chosen. The conclave ultimately elected Urban VI, but shortly thereafter, a group of cardinals claimed that the election was invalid due to the cardinals fearing for their life. This breakaway group elected a rival Pope who returned to Avignon. This was the beginning of the Great Western Schism, where there were two, and eventually three, popes ruling simultaneously.

For her part, Catherine vehemently backed Urban VI in the schism, never relenting in her belief that the pope needed to be in Rome for all to be right with the world.

Catherine would die at the age of 33 on April 29, 1380. She was later canonized as a saint in 1461 by Pope Pius II.

The early Church utilized art as a means of communication, as a secret way to express their faith in Christ and (hopefully) sidestep Roman persecution. Examining these coded images, such as fish and bread, helps explore how early Christian communities turned to art as a means of expression and survival.

The Subterranean World of Imperial Rome

Outside the city walls of ancient Rome, in the year 1578, archaeologists stumbled upon extensive underground tunnels organized into intricate networks that appeared to have been used primarily as tombs. There was little doubt as to who the people were who used these underground burial networks, because they identified themselves using art. 

In a society where the early Church faced severe persecution under Roman law as a forbidden superstition (religio illicita), the first Christians expressed themselves away from the public eye, underground.

Despite the probable toxic fumes of decomposing corpses, the tight spaces, and dim lighting, the Roman Catacombs became the canvas that held their passionate beliefs. Art became a means of communication in these low-profile sanctuaries, safely tucked away from the persecution these early Christians faced above ground.

The Visual Language of Survival Under Persecution

There is something striking about the catacombs being both a place of mourning and artistic expression. It reminds one of Ezekiel’s prophecy where the valley of dead bones come back to life by the word of God. For the God of the Bible has always been One who brings beauty from ashes.

Roman authorities were likely aware of the catacombs, yet the art inside still indicates some fear of being found out. The early Christians adopted and altered existing pagan art motifs, probably to avoid suspicion. Facing Roman persecution, art offered secret signs and a mode of communication. 

While modern Christian imagery popularly prefers the cross, the gruesome reality of crucifixion in those times meant that image would not appeal to them as something awe-inspiring. Their chosen visual language, still evident in some catacombs today, favored imagery such as fish, bread, and lambs.

Decoding the Cryptographic Secrets of Ancient Christian Imagery

Art offers an ambiguous method for oppressed peoples to provide solidarity to one another subtly and safely. Consider the edelweiss flower pins worn by youth opposing Hitler’s reign, or the flying geese patterns embroidered by African American slaves. 

The ancient Christian icons often depicted events from the life of Jesus through multi-layered metaphors. One such example is found in the history of the fish symbol (Greek = Ichtys). Legend has it that this was a mnemonic device where each letter of the word became a code in the message of the Gospel, stating Jesus Christ was the Son of God and the Savior. Jesus called disciples to be fishers of men, so a fish became the preferred sign.

Another example of cryptographic or encoded catacomb art is the common images of bread, referencing God’s provision (the wilderness manna), Jesus’ multiplication miracle (of the loaves and fishes), and the use of the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist).

Art and Its Meaning Inside the Catacomb of Callixtus

It’s fascinating that this network of burial caves was forgotten for so many years and truly astounding that the artworks were preserved so well despite their fragile state. The catacomb of Callixtus along the Appian Way, for example, is home to frescoes from around the 3rd century, offering a real window into what life was like for the early Christians. 

Here, large and well-kept paintings reveal Christian meanings to the observer who knows what to look for. 

• An image of a young man carrying a lamb on his shoulders seems random enough, but it echoes Jesus’ teaching where he said: “I am the good shepherd” (John 10:11).

• Or an image of fish and bread clearly holds five loaves, the same amount Jesus used to feed the multitude. It is also interpreted as Jesus (remember Ichtys?) giving spiritual food.

The Evolution From Subterranean Graffiti to Renaissance Masterpieces

These were the humble beginnings of the art history of the early Church. The parables that Jesus used to teach became a kind of hidden language, offering persecuted Christians the solidarity and comfort they so needed. The events of his life, memorized and repeated, slowly became traditions marking this persecuted minority as an emerging religion. Following the Edict of Milan, art would still be used to express the faith, but with no more of the limitations posed by the conditions underground.

These early Christian symbols were not the only archaeological evidence found indicating who was laid to rest in these tombs. They also found scrolls naming believers, rooms for funerary customs, and small trinkets left with bodies to identify them (many of which were already looted). 

Whether the catacombs were a secret from Roman officials or not, the images painted in them are evidence of a certain coded language used by the first believers to express their faith boldly.

The majority of scholars readily accept that Jesus was a real historical figure who was crucified. Many also agree that, following the crucifixion, his disciples honestly believed that they saw his resurrected body. However, historians part ways on whether Christ was actually raised from the dead, with some offering naturalistic theories to explain the Resurrection.

What Christians Believe

Christians believe that Jesus rose physically from the dead and appeared to the disciples and others in a glorified body, a body that would never get sick, grow old, or die. This miracle is at the heart of Christianity. The apostle Paul, in his first letter to the Corinthians, wrote,

“What I received I passed on to you as of first importance: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas (Peter), and then to the Twelve (disciples). After that, he appeared to more than five hundred of the brothers and sisters at the same time, most of whom are still living, though some have fallen asleep (died). Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles, and last of all he appeared to me also, as to one abnormally born” (1 Corinthians 15:3-8).

Naturalism and Miracles

Beginning early in the 18th century, some scholars started to challenge the truth claims of the Bible and the validity of miracles. Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1771) wrote in An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding that rational people, when offered multiple choices to explain an event, will choose the explanation that is most probable, and that miracles are the most improbable explanation of all.

His statement reflects the rise of the philosophy of naturalism. Naturalism purports that nothing exists outside the natural world, thereby excluding the possibility of anything or anyone supernatural, such as God, and that so-called miracles have a natural explanation. In light of this, some scholars have attempted to explain the resurrection of Jesus as a naturalistic event.

1. The Swoon Theory

Proponents of the swoon theory suggest that Jesus did not die on the cross, but was still alive when his friends removed him from it. Critics respond that it is highly unlikely that anyone could endure what Christ went through and remain alive.

The Roman soldiers were experts when it came to the matter of torturing and killing people. After divesting Jesus of his clothes, they would have chained him to a pillar so that he would not collapse as they beat him with whips that consisted of multiple strands of leather with metal balls woven throughout them. At the end of each of the ropes were pieces of glass, nails, and bone—anything sharp that would cut deeply into the flesh and strip his skin off, exposing muscle and bone on his back, his buttocks, his chest, and his legs. Jesus would have lost a great deal of blood in the process. These beatings were called “the half-death” because half the people flagellated in this manner died from the whipping.

At that point and in that state, Jesus was forced to carry his cross to the location of his crucifixion on Golgotha, also known as the Place of the Skull, because the hill was skull-shaped. The Gospels record that he fell many times, and Matthew, Mark, and Luke note that the soldiers pulled a man named Simon, who was from Cyrene, from the crowd and made him help Jesus with the cross.

Then there is the process of the crucifixion, a truly brutal and excruciating way to die. First, the soldiers laid Jesus on the cross on the ground and pounded nails through the two bones in each of his wrists (which Jews considered part of the hand) rather than his palms, as they would not hold him upright. They then crossed his feet and drove a spike through them, at which point they lifted him up.

As his body sank down, Jesus would have had to push himself up using his feet as breathing became difficult. In fact, he would have had to do this with every breath that he took for the six hours that he hung on the cross. Additionally, he would have been dehydrated, not having had anything to drink since his arrest. Finally, he died. A Roman soldier shoved a spear up between his ribs into his heart to make sure that he was truly dead.

Experts say that it would be impossible to survive all of that and dismiss the swoon theory as highly improbable, if not totally impossible.

2. The Hallucination Theory

The American Psychological Association defines a hallucination as “a false sensory perception that has a compelling sense of reality despite the absence of an external stimulus.” In other words, people see, hear, smell, taste, and feel things that are not really there. Researchers tell us that 50 percent of the population will have hallucinations of their loved ones after their death. British Bible scholar Michael Goulder (1927-2010) suggested that this was the case with Christ’s followers who claimed to see the resurrected Jesus. He said they were merely hallucinating.

There is one major problem with this theory. People cannot share identical hallucinations when they are awake, just as they cannot share identical dreams during sleep. Paul tells us in 1 Corinthians 15:6 that 500 people saw him at the same time, and he notes that many of those people were still alive at the time of his writing. Jesus also appeared to a number of his disciples in the Upper Room, where Thomas doubted that Christ was really there among them, causing Jesus to invite him to touch the wounds on his body (John 20:19-31). And Jesus shared breakfast with Peter and the other disciples on the beach of the Sea of Galilee (John 21:1-14). These episodes indicate that the sightings of Jesus were not hallucinations.

3. The Stolen Body Theory

Some scholars have speculated that Christ’s tomb was empty simply because his body was removed. Some suggest that the Romans might have stolen it or, perhaps, the Jewish leaders. However, there is no apparent reason for either of these groups to remove the corpse. In fact, it would serve their purposes more to leave the dead body there to prove Jesus was a mere mortal, not the long-awaited Messiah. Others say that his followers probably took it because they wanted to make everyone believe that Jesus really had risen from the dead.

Christian apologists point to the traditional belief that all the apostles, except John and Judas (who committed suicide), were tortured and executed because of their belief in the resurrection of Jesus. We read in Acts 12:2 that James, the son of Zebedee, was beheaded by Herod Agrippa I (44 AD). Tradition has it that Peter was crucified upside down in Rome. Andrew was said to be crucified in Greece, while Philip was also supposedly crucified or beheaded. It is possible that Barnabas was also beheaded. Either that or he was flayed to death. Both Thomas and Matthew were supposedly stabbed to death with spears, Thomas in India and Matthew in Ethiopia. Lastly, James was either beaten or stoned to death.

Christian apologists say that, if Christ’s followers had removed his body to convince people of his resurrection, it is highly unlikely that they would have given up their lives for something they knew to be a lie.

4. The Wrong Tomb Theory

Some scholars suggest that the women who went to anoint Christ’s body simply went to the wrong tomb, one that was indeed empty. However, Mary Magdalene was present at his crucifixion, and all four gospels attest to the fact that she was with the men who laid him in his grave. It had only been a couple of days since they did this. Therefore, it is highly unlikely that she would have forgotten where the body of Jesus rested and gone to the wrong tomb. Thus, this theory is easily debunked.

5. The Substitution or Replacement Theory

The substitution theory takes two forms. One suggests that someone replaced Jesus on the cross and died in his place, someone such as Simon of Cyrene, the man who helped carry Christ’s cross to Golgotha. In fact, the idea that someone volunteered to take Jesus’s place has been popular among Muslims for centuries. But why would a bystander step up to die on the cross for him? One theory suggests that Judas did so out of guilt for betraying him. However, the Bible records Judas’s death before that of Christ’s (Matthew 27:3-10).

Another theory purports that Jesus did indeed die, and a look-alike claiming to be the resurrected Christ fooled everyone in the aftermath of the crucifixion. One would think that those closest to Jesus would recognize the difference. This perhaps explains why some scholars put forth the theory that Jesus actually had a twin, with some claiming that it could have been Thomas, one of Jesus’s disciples, who was called Didymus, the Greek word for “twin.”

Some of these ideas stem from Gnostic texts, including The Acts of Thomas (not to be confused with The Gospel of Thomas) and The Second Treatise of the Great Seth. Gnosticism had many faces, but, basically, the religion elevated the spiritual and denigrated the physical, teaching that one achieved salvation through the attainment of secret knowledge rather than faith in Christ. Both texts were written late, and their authorship is in question. Therefore, they are not part of the Biblical canon and are considered heretical by the Christian Church.

6. Jesus as a Mythical Figure Theory

Some critics purport that Jesus was not a real historical figure, but a mythical one like the Persian Mithras or the Egyptian Osiris. However, most historians agree that there was indeed such a person as Jesus living in the 1st-century AD. They just do not all agree that he was God Incarnate.

There are many non-biblical sources that speak of him, including that of Tacitus, a Roman historian (54-120 AD) who wrote about Jesus and his followers, saying that their name came “from Christ, who, during the reign of Tiberius, had been executed by the procurator Pontius Pilate” (from his Annals).

Josephus, a Jewish historian (born 37 AD), mentions Jesus in his Antiquities of the Jews and The Jewish War. Scholars note that Christians might have embellished what he wrote to make a stronger case for Christ’s divinity. However, most agree that the basic information he provides about Christ’s existence is authentic.

Other evidence regarding the historicity of Jesus comes from Pliny the Younger, a Roman senator and historian who lived in the 1st-century AD, Suetonius, a Roman historian who writes of “Chrestus” in his The Twelve Caesars, published in 120 AD, and Lucian of Samosata, a 2nd-century Greek satirist who speaks of a man crucified in Palestine and the Christians who followed him in his The Passing of Peregrinus.

Lastly, the early Church Father, Origen, wrote a text called Against Celsus in response to what Celsus, a philosopher who lived in the 2nd century AD, said about Jesus. He claimed that Christ was the illegitimate son of Mary and a Roman soldier and vilified Jesus as a charlatan who performed acts of sorcery and made thieves of his followers.

Conclusion

Paul noted that, if Christ did not rise from the dead, then his followers were to be pitied because, if he didn’t experience a true physical resurrection, then neither would they, and they would die in their sins (1 Corinthians 15:19). It is for this reason that Christians defend the event so passionately. Faith in the biblical account of it came into question in the 18th century because of a change in worldview that no longer accepted the possibility of miracles.

A multitude of influential women are built into the fabric of the historical narratives of the ancient Israelites. Whether specifically mentioned by name or not, they were, nevertheless, always present as the influencers, mothers, sisters, daughters, and supporters of every Biblical hero, villain, and significant event or cause.

Women in the Bible are often blamed as instigators, seductresses, and sly manipulators when evil strikes their tribes, but also honored for acts of courage and righteousness.

1. Eve

The first woman created by God. Genesis 1: “God created humankind in His image… male and female He created them.” Genesis 2 expands on how humankind was created as two separate, equal human beings. After God created Adam, Genesis says, “It is not good for the human to be alone; I will make a helper corresponding to him.” This created the space for justifying patriarchal structures according to some interpretations.

Eve’s actions and moral awakening shaped the doctrines of sin and redemption in Christianity and similar religions.

2. Sarah

Matriarch of the Israelites (Genesis 17, 18, and 21), Sarai was the barren wife of Israel’s original patriarch, Abram. God made a covenant with him that he would become the father of a nation that God would choose for himself, and through this bloodline, all the nations of the Earth would be blessed.

Sarai laughed in her tent when she heard this because she doubted God’s word, as she was long past the age of bearing a child. God changed her name to Sarah, and Abram’s to Abraham. She gave her Egyptian maid servant, Hagar, to Abraham (Genesis 16) to enable him to have a child, and Ishmael was born.

Later, Sarah miraculously bears her own son, Isaac, at the age of 90 (Genesis 21:2). Her doubts evaporated. She became a faithful matriarch of the covenant nation of Israel.

3. Hagar

Hagar had no choice in the matter of Abraham. She was a slave. She, nevertheless, obeyed her mistress, Sarah, and had a son for Abraham and Sarah. After Sarah’s own son was born, she was mean to Hagar and Ishmael. Hagar fled into the desert with her son in Genesis 21. A slightly different story is recounted in Genesis 16, because Hagar flees into the desert while she is still pregnant.

God sent an angel to fetch her back to Abraham’s camp and promised her that her son would become the ancestor of many nations. Hagar thus became the matriarch of the Arab nations. Hagar’s story illustrates God’s compassion for people other than the Israelites.

4. Rebekah

Rebekah was chosen through divine guidance to become the wife of Isaac in Genesis 24. She became the mother of twins, Jacob and Esau. Later, by deception, she ensured that Jacob, rather than Esau, received the covenant blessing from Isaac (Genesis 27).

Rebekah thus becomes God’s instrument in making Jacob the father of the twelve tribes of Israel. Rebekah’s story demonstrates how God works through human choices.

5. Leah

Jacob was tricked into marrying Leah, the eldest daughter of Laban, Rebekah’s brother, when he was in love with Rachel, the youngest daughter (Genesis 29). Laban promised to give him Rachel as well, in return for a second spell of serving him as a shepherd for seven years.

God chose the unloved Leah to bear six of Jacob’s twelve sons, which included Levi, tribal ancestor of the Levites (priestly class), and Judah, the tribal ancestor of Israel’s royal line, from which King David and Jesus Christ would be born.

6. Rachel

Rachel was Jacob’s beloved wife, but she was barren for years. Jacob had four sons with Leah’s and Rachel’s servants before God eventually blessed Rachel with two sons, Joseph and Benjamin (Genesis 30:22-24).

Rachel’s contribution to the Bible lies in the fact that she was Joseph’s mother. Joseph’s life story is a complex tale of family dynamics and betrayal that led him from slavery to Egyptian power, enabling him to save the Israelites from famine by bringing them all to Egypt.

7. Miriam

Miriam helped her mother, Jochebed, save Moses from Pharaoh’s death decree when he was an infant (Exodus 2:4-10). Later, she is revealed as a prophetess and a great poet when she leads the Israelite women in a song of praise after the crossing of the Red Sea (Exodus 15:20-21).

8. Pharaoh’s Daughter

The Egyptian princess who adopted Moses (Exodus 2:5-10) is not named in Exodus. She is, however, named Bataya (also Batiya, Bithiah, or Batyah) in Jewish and Christian tradition. She is assumed to be the daughter of Pharaoh, who later married into the tribe of Judah (1 Chronicles 4:18). Her daring and compassion in adopting Moses in the face of Pharaoh’s cruelty earned her an enduring legacy in Jewish tradition as an exemplary righteous gentile.

Bataya raised Moses as an Egyptian prince, giving him access to a formal education in all the known sciences, military skills, reading, and writing. One may wonder if Moses educated the Israelites with some of that knowledge during the 40 years of wandering in the wilderness.

9. Deborah

Deborah was a prophetess who became Israel’s only female judge during the time between Joshua and the Israelite monarchy (Judges 4:4). Through divine inspiration, she commands and inspires an Israelite warrior, Barak, to wage a victorious battle to rid Israel of oppression by a Canaanite king and his cruel commander, Sisera. Deborah confirms women’s diverse roles, including leadership, in God’s redemptive works.

10. Jael

When Sisera fled on foot from the battle carnage, Jael, wife of a Kenite (Moses’s father-in-law’s family, according to Judges 1: 16), enticed him into her tent. She waited until he was fast asleep, took a tent-peg, and hammered it through his temple so hard that it nailed him to the floor (Judges 4:21).

This heroic, unplanned deed is yet another way in which God used an outsider, and a woman at that, to contribute to the welfare of Israel. Incidentally, Deborah had prophesied that a woman would kill Sisera!

11. Delilah

This Philistine woman was the mistress of Samson, one of Israel’s judges before the monarchy. Samson was a Nazirite (Numbers 6) whose long hair gave him superhuman strength. Delilah seduced Samson into divulging the secret of his superb strength that had kept entire Philistine armies at bay. She cut his hair while he was sleeping, allowing her kinsmen to catch and blind him, and throw him in jail.

Delilah became the metaphor for a seductress in the traditions of Jews and Christians. She influenced the course of Israelite history by letting the Philistines overrun the tribes of Israel again. She embodies the concepts of betrayal and manipulation.

12. Hannah

Hannah was barren. She prayed persistently and fervently (1 Samuel 1:12-18) for a child at the tabernacle in Shiloh. She vowed to dedicate her child to God’s service if her plea was granted.

She gave birth to Samuel, a great prophet and Israel’s last judge. Hannah took him to live with the High Priest at Shiloh as soon as he was old enough (1 Samuel 1:27-28). He anointed Saul as Israel’s first king, and later David.

Hannah’s persistence in prayer and pleading with God is an example of perseverance and faith.

13. Ruth

Naomi, an Israelite widow, returned to Israel from Moab after her Israelite husband and two sons died there. Ruth was her Moabite daughter-in-law who bravely left her own Moabite people to go with Naomi, saying, “Your people shall be my people, and your God my God” (Ruth 1:16). She married Boaz, a family member of Naomi. From this bloodline, King David was born three generations later.

Ruth demonstrates loyalty, and her story shows God’s intention of including Gentiles in his plan of redemption.

14. Bathsheba

Was Bathsheba an innocent victim or a seductress? King David sees her bathing on her roof from his palace. She was exceptionally beautiful. He summons her to the palace, and they end up committing adultery. Bathsheba falls pregnant. This eventually leads to David organizing her husband’s death in battle (2 Samuel 11: 6-17).

David marries Bathsheba after she mourned for a period. But God is displeased, and their baby dies. According to tradition, this led David to compose one of his most beautiful psalms (Psalm 51) when he realized that it was because of his sin.

Bathsheba later bears Solomon, and becomes a political actor securing Solomon’s succession (1 Kings 1:11–31), and shapes David’s fall from grace.

15. Jezebel

A fervent follower of the pagan deity Ba’al, Jezebel was a princess of Sidon who married King Ahab of the Kingdom of Israel (1 Kings 16:31). Jezebel was cruel in the defense of her religion and debauched lifestyle. She ordered the killing of Yahweh’s priests and prophets. She was especially relentless in her pursuit of Elijah, the great prophet. Her violent death was prophesied and she was thrown from a palace window and devoured by dogs (2 Kings 9: 30-37).

Historically, she led Israel to idolatry, apostasy, and the adoption of corrupt and immoral habits. She is used as a metaphor in Revelation 2:20 for false teachings and tyranny.

16. Esther

Esther was a beautiful Jewish orphan who was raised by her uncle, Mordechai, in Assyria,  and married the mighty Persian King Xerxes (Ahasuerus in scripture). When Haman, an influential aide of the king, plots genocide against the Jews, Esther approaches the king without an invitation—an act which was punishable by death. However, the king accepts her approach, and Esther ultimately secures her people’s survival (Esther 4:14).

Esther is an example of faith and courage. The Jews honor Yahweh’s prevention of Haman’s intended genocide through the intervention of Esther by celebrating the Purim festival annually.

17. Elizabeth

Elizabeth was the wife of Zacharias, a priest in the Second Temple Period. Elizabeth is described as a righteous woman. She was barren. And then, in her old age, she becomes the mother of John the Baptist. Archangel Gabriel brings Zacharias the wonderful news that Elizabeth will become pregnant, and they will have a son who will prepare the way for the coming Messiah (Luke 1:11-17). Elizabeth gains prophetic insight as Mary visits her during her pregnancy and recognizes that the child Mary is carrying will be the Messiah (Luke 1:42).

Historically, Elizabeth bridges the Old Testament prophecies and the New Testament fulfillment. Her maternal role and faith-filled life are crucial steps in this process.

18. Mary (Mother of Jesus)

Luke 1:26-38 introduces Mary as the virgin chosen by God to bear the Messiah. Mary’s humble reply to the angel Gabriel, who announced it to her, demonstrates her faith and humble obedience (Luke 1:38). Mary followed Jesus at times during his ministry and was present at his crucifixion (John 19:21). His first recorded miracle (turning water into wine) was at her request.

Mary shaped scripture as the mother of Jesus Christ. She is, thus, historically and theologically the most significant of all influential women in the Bible.

19. Mary Magdalene

Interpretations of who exactly Mary Magdalene was vary greatly. Some early Christian writers added their own logically possible enhancements, which may or may not be accurate. Christian apologetics cuts through all the later twists and turns, giving us a straight scripture-based view.

She was a devout disciple of Jesus who contributed financially to his ministry (Luke 8:1-3). According to Luke, Jesus cleansed her of seven demons (Luke 8:1-3). She was a witness to his crucifixion, burial, and resurrection (Mark 15:40-41; John 19:25). She was the first person to whom Jesus appeared after his resurrection (John 20:11-18), and the first person commissioned to announce the Resurrection. Thus, she is the most historically significant woman in the gospels apart from Mary.

20. Martha

Martha of Bethany was the sister of yet another Mary, and Lazarus, who Jesus raised from the dead. They were dear friends and disciples of Jesus, who he visited often. In Luke 10:38-42, Jesus compares Martha’s practical household duties with her sister Mary’s concentration exclusively on listening to his every word.

Martha stands out as an example of practical hospitality, and for her declaration of unequivocal faith in professing Jesus as the Christ, the Son of God (John 11:27).

21. Joanna

Joanna makes this list because she represents the only woman among Jesus’s closest followers and financial supporters linked to Herod Antipas’s court. She was married to Chuza, Herod’s palace steward. She was healed by Jesus from an unknown illness (Luke 8:1-3). She was present at his crucifixion and burial. She was one of Jesus’s intimately known female followers who had gone to the tomb with burial spices, where an angel told them the tomb was empty because Jesus had risen from the dead (Luke 24:10).

We can accept that Joanna was filled with courage and faith because she defied the danger to herself from palace connections and political intrigue to follow Jesus. Her legacy is one of boldness, absolute belief in Jesus as the Messiah, and her role as a witness to others after his resurrection.

22. The Samaritan Woman

Although scripture does not give us her name, this woman was influential in many ways. She meets Jesus at Jacob’s well in Samaria (John 4). She had a colorful past, and Jesus told her details of her past without her telling him anything. She believed at once that he was the Messiah when he told her that he could give her “living water.” She ran back to her village and called the people to go and meet him (John 4:29).

Historically, the Samaritan woman became the first missionary. She is a further example of a woman fearlessly breaking the barriers of gender roles, ethnicity, and moral laws of her time. She demonstrates that God’s salvation extends beyond human boundaries.

23. Phoebe

Phoebe was a deacon in the early church of Cenchreae during Paul’s ministry (Romans 16:1-2) in Corinth. He entrusts her with the letter to the Christians in Rome. He commends her as a benefactor to many, including himself.

Phoebe illustrates to us the important roles of women in the early church.

24. Lydia

Lydia was the first European Christian. Paul baptized and taught her. She was a trader of purple cloth, so one can assume she was wealthy (Acts 16:14-15). Lydia opened her house to Paul and his companions, and they used it as their base. Thus, she became a benefactor to the Church of Phillipi in Macedonia.

Lydia is important for being the first European to be baptized, and enabling the spread of Christianity by providing practical support and a base for Paul and his missionaries.

25. Herodias

Herodias is an evil woman in scripture. She was the granddaughter of Herod and married to Herod Antipas. She hated John the Baptist because he openly condemned this marriage. Herodias used her daughter, Salome, at a banquet to manipulate Herod to secure John’s beheading (Mark 6:17-28).

Herodias personifies the excesses of unchecked power and lack of a moral compass.

Genealogies in the Second Temple Period of Jewish history were sometimes manipulated to exclude unsavory characters or highlight specific figures to emphasize the author’s purpose. Women were seldom mentioned unless they were essential for a bloodline’s survival, necessary for specific inheritance, or emphasized a theological point. Generational lineage was extremely important to the Jews as it established rights of inheritance, property ownership, tribal identity, legitimacy of priesthood, and royal identity.

Matthew’s genealogy of Jesus follows the traditional pattern and style of listing patrilineal descent, but then deliberately veers off the traditional path by including five women. What are we to read into this?

Tamar

Tamar was the childless widow of Judah’s eldest son, Er. According to Jewish tradition (levirate law), Judah told his second son to marry Tamar, but he also died without an heir.

Next, Judah was supposed to marry Tamar to his third and last son to ensure the continuation of the bloodline, but he was afraid to because of the deaths of his two elder sons. Tamar, a Canaanite woman, nevertheless, did not give up on bearing a child to ensure inheritance of the covenantal promise for her firstborn.

Tamar dressed as a prostitute and hoodwinked Judah into sleeping with her. She suspected that he would deny paternity if she became pregnant, so she requested his seal, cord, and walking stick as a pledge of future payment before he departed. When Judah was told that his widowed daughter-in-law was pregnant, he ordered that she be put to death. Tamar sent him the missing items with a message that they belonged to the father of the baby she was carrying.

Judah was deeply ashamed that this foreign woman went to these lengths to follow the Jewish Law of inheritance while he himself fell short. He married her, and they had twin sons. Through one son, Perez, the lineage moved forward to King David, and ultimately Jesus Christ.

Judah and Tamar’s story is in Genesis 38 in the Bible. Matthew’s genealogy includes naming Tamar in Matthew 1:3 to draw the reader’s mind to the theme of salvation through God’s exceeding Grace. These themes of morally complex situations and unexpected people, foreigners, and repentant sinners guide believers into accepting the mysterious ways of the Almighty.

Rahab

When Joshua sent spies on a reconnaissance mission into Jericho after the Exodus, they were recognized as suspicious strangers. They were lodging at the house of Rahab, a prostitute whose house was built into the city wall (Joshua 2:1). When the king’s men cornered them, Rahab hid them under the stalks of flax on her roof. She later let them down the enormous city walls by rope. Rahab acknowledged that she knew the Israelites would be victorious, as their God was the real God of Heaven and Earth, who had given them the land of Canaan (Joshua 2:9-11).

She told the spies that the entire country was afraid because they had heard of the battles the Israelites had won against mighty armies. She extracted a promise from the spies that her entire family would be saved, and so they promised Rahab that she and her family would be spared when Israel conquered the city. She was instructed to tie a scarlet cord to the outer window from which she lowered them, to mark her house when the Israelites came.

In Joshua 6, we read how the promise was kept, and Rahab and her family were saved. She becomes an ancestress of King David. In the Babylonian Talmud and later Jewish traditions and manuscripts, beliefs were added that Rahab’s descendants included several prophets and leaders.

Ruth

Ruth is one of the only two women after whom an entire book in the Bible is named. Ruth was a foreigner from the land of Moab.

The Moabites were regular enemies of Israel as confirmed by the famous Mesha Stele (Moabite Stone). At the time of Ruth’s life, though, there must have been peace between the Moabites and Israelites, because her Israelite mother-in-law and family had been living in Moab when Ruth’s Israelite husband died.

Ruth left her own family behind and moved to Israel with her mother-in-law, Naomi, after Naomi’s husband and two sons died. They moved to Bethlehem, where Naomi’s family hailed from. Ruth adopted Naomi’s customs and religion (Ruth 1:16). The two women had to fend for themselves, with Ruth looking loyally after Naomi by gathering wheat left in the fields by the harvesters. She was gathering wheat in the fields of Boaz, a wealthy landowner and kin of Naomi. Boaz, impressed by Ruth’s loyalty and integrity, married her. Their son, Obed, became King David’s grandfather.

Although Ruth was a woman and a foreigner, it is not such a great stretch as the two previous women for Matthew to include her in his genealogy. She was a righteous woman untouched by scandal or a sinful lifestyle. Her legacy of selfless devotion to Naomi was admired by all the Israelites who heard her story, and the Book of Ruth is included in the canon of the Christian Bible.

Bathsheba, the Wife of Uriah

Bathsheba was an Israelite woman married to Uriah, a Hittite soldier in King David’s army. Israel’s army under Joab was engaged in several battles of conquest and retribution against the Ammonites, culminating in a siege of their capital city, Rabbah (today’s Amman, Jordan). David did not accompany them.

One night, David was walking on the roof of his palace when he saw a beautiful woman bathing on her roof. He inquired about her from his staff, and was told that she was Bathsheba, daughter of Eliam and wife of Uriah the Hittite, who was away fighting with Joab. David summoned Bathsheba to his palace.

Rabbinic literature describes her as a modest and virtuous woman, akin to the description of an ideal woman in Proverbs 31. Nevertheless, David and Bathsheba commit adultery. Bathsheba became pregnant and David sent a message to Joab to send Uriah to him with an update on the war’s progress. David tries to get Uriah to sleep at his home with Bathsheba and return to the war the next day. Uriah instead sleeps with David’s palace staff, declaring that he cannot sleep comfortably in his own bed with his wife while his comrades in arms sleep in the open fields.

David sends him back with a sealed message to Joab. In it, he instructs Joab to set Uriah up in battle in a position that will ensure he is killed by the Ammonites. After a brief period of mourning, David marries Bathsheba. God sends the prophet Nathan to reprimand David. David pleads with God to forgive him. His genuine repentance is demonstrated in Psalm 51. Bathsheba and David’s baby falls ill and dies but Bathsheba has more sons with David, including the famous Solomon, through whom the Messianic line is preserved.

Matthew’s genealogy mentions Bathsheba only as “the wife of Uriah” to point our understanding subtly at David’s role in this epic saga of lust and betrayal, which forms part of the lineage of Jesus Christ. Through David’s sincere repentance and God’s gracious mercy and redemption, his salvation for all of humanity is demonstrated.

Mary

Scripture does not explicitly mention Mary’s lineage. Instead, Matthew’s genealogy follows Joseph’s position as a descendant of David from the royal tribe of Judah. Luke implies that Mary was also from the same royal lineage of Judah. The early Church Fathers accepted that Mary was a descendant of David, with Ignatius (ca AD 110) writing to the Ephesians that Jesus was born to Mary “of the seed of David” and the Holy Spirit.

Joseph and Mary travel together to Bethlehem to register for the census due to Joseph’s Davidic lineage, though early Church tradition strongly maintains that Mary shared this same royal ancestry. With Mary’s visit to Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist, we learn that Mary also had family from the tribe of Levi.

Mary was a humble, young virgin engaged to Joseph, who proceeded to marry her after he was told by an angel that the child she carried was a miraculous conception through the intervention of God’s Holy Spirit. This lifted the scandal that would have engulfed Mary if Joseph had broken the engagement, and she became an unmarried young mother.

Genealogies in the Ancient World

Greco-Roman genealogies were often fictionalized to elevate the status of an important person. They included divine or heroic characters in their ancestry to serve as political propaganda. Jewish genealogies emphasized theological themes. They sometimes tended to omit or downplay problematic characters and highlighted key figures that drew attention to the divine thread of the covenantal promise woven throughout the tapestry of their history.

Matthew’s genealogy divides the generations of Israel into three groups of fourteen:

“So all the generations from Abraham to David were fourteen generations, from David to the exile in Babylon fourteen generations, and from the exile to the Christ fourteen generations.” (Matthew 1:17)

Scholars generally agree that Matthew left out generations on purpose, and not in error. He includes sinners and subtly points us to David’s gross misconduct, followed by God’s exceeding grace. He veers off traditional Jewish male genealogies to include five women. Each of these five women, in addition to their gender, brings an unlikely aspect to this sacred genealogy.

Tamar used disguise to manipulate Judah; Rahab was a Canaanite prostitute before she acknowledged Israel’s God as the only true God; Ruth was a Moabite who brought herself to the attention of Boaz; Bathsheba was a married woman when she slept with King David; Mary was an innocent virgin from an insignificant and obscure rural backwater village in Galilee.

Matthew’s genealogy points to the mission of Jesus Christ to include sinners, outsiders, the vulnerable, and the unexpected, thus forming a fitting introduction to the theme of the gospels. It demonstrates that God’s redemption is open to all the nations and crosses humanity’s conventional boundaries.

When considering the many saints venerated by the Roman Catholic Church, our thoughts often turn to those who have been dead for many centuries. We may bring to mind the Biblical followers of Jesus Christ who are responsible for the spread of the gospel or the 16th-century Catholic martyrs who were executed for refusing to renounce their faith.

Rarely do we think of those men and women who lived in fairly recent history; those who walked the Earth at the same time as our parents, or those whose timelines may even have crossed over with our own.

1. Saint Maximilian Kolbe

In times of great trouble, particularly in urgent moments of desperation or despair, we all like to believe that we would be capable of an act of bravery or love. However, when it comes down to it, not many people would be willing to sacrifice their own life for that of a complete stranger. It is this manner of selfless generosity that rendered our first saint worthy of canonization. His name was Maximilian Kolbe. He was born on January 8, 1894, and would become a Franciscan Friar, priest, missionary, and just one of the many saints of World War II.

During the Second World War, Maximilian Kolbe was one of the unfortunate, innocent people to enter the Auschwitz concentration camp by force. Although over a million lives were ended, Kolbe would have been grateful to save just one. His greatest display of Christian love came about in the following way.

In July 1941, the deputy camp commander of Auschwitz ordered his guards to select ten men, at random, to be starved to death in an underground bunker. Franciszek Gajowniczek, a Polish Catholic, was one of the ten to be pointed out on the spur of the moment. On being chosen, Gajowniczek cried out, immediately expressing fear at leaving behind his wife and children.

In that same second, Maximilian Kolbe stepped forward and volunteered to take his place. The guards, who had been instructed to fetch ten men at random, cared little and accepted Kolbe as a replacement. As a result, Kolbe was the tenth to be taken.

Witnesses testified that Maximilian Kolbe calmly led the other nine inmates to the bunker, steadily reassuring them with his quiet but comforting prayers.

After two whole weeks with neither food nor water, only Maximilian Kolbe and three other men remained alive. Eager to empty the area, the guards administered lethal injections to the four. Kolbe is said to have lifted his arm willingly, waiting without anxiety for the inevitable.

Throughout his life, Maximilian Kolbe had expressed a deep devotion to the Virgin Mary, and therefore it is fitting that he was cremated on August 15, the Feast Day of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. We can only imagine that this coincidence would have brought him great peace and happiness, and that he would have considered it a blessing from God.

It was Pope John Paul II who named Maximilian Kolbe a Martyr of Charity on October 10, 1982. He is remembered as a Martyr of Charity, as he did not die as a direct result of hate of the faith, but voluntarily as an act of bravery, inspired by love for God and his fellow man.

The Feast of Saint Maximilian Kolbe is now celebrated on August 14, the day on which he died. He is often depicted with the religious habit of a friar, or in a prison uniform with the badge of a concentration camp, and usually holding either a crucifix or a set of rosary beads. He is remembered as the Patron Saint of prisoners, drug addicts, journalists, amateur radio operators, and people with eating disorders.

2. Saint Oscar Romero

The second saint on this list is Saint Oscar Romero, the revered Archbishop who was born in El Salvador on the 15th of August in the year 1917. The Encyclopaedia Britannica describes Saint Oscar Romero and the main points of his life and works in the following way…

“Oscar Romero was a Salvadoran Roman Catholic Archbishop who was a vocal critic of the violent activities of government armed forces, right-wing groups, and leftist guerrillas involved in El Salvador’s civil conflict.”

Like many Saints, it is his death for which Oscar Romero is best remembered. On the evening of March 24, 1980, he celebrated Mass for the sick in a small chapel. This chapel was located in the Hospital de la Divina Providencia, a Church-run hospital specializing in care for those with terminal cancer.

As Romero finished his homily, he stepped away from the lectern and towards the center of the altar. Suddenly, a red but unidentified car came to an abrupt halt on the street in front of the chapel. A man emerged, stepped through the doors of the chapel, and fired one gunshot. The bullet struck Oscar Romero in the heart.

Oscar Romero was later buried in the Metropolitan Cathedral of San Salvador. His funeral Mass took place on March 30 and was attended by over 250,000 mourners from all over the world. However, it was only fairly recently that Oscar Romero was declared a Saint. In 1997, Pope John Paul II bestowed upon him the title Servant of God, and a cause for beatification was put forth. Romero was finally named a martyr by Pope Francis on February 3, 2015, and later canonized on October 14, 2018.

The Feast Day of Saint Oscar Romero is now celebrated annually on March 24.

In artworks, Saint Oscar Romero is commonly depicted with Episcopal vestments, the crown of martyrdom, a martyr’s palm, and a set of rosary beads. He is remembered as the patron saint of Christian communicators, El Salvador, the Archdiocese of San Salvador, persecuted Christians, Caritas International, and the Philippines.

The personal motto of Saint Oscar Romero was “Sentire cum ecclesia,” which means “feel with the Church.”

3. Saint Maria Francesca Cabrini

Our third 20th-century Saint is Maria Francesca Cabrini. She is significant because she was the first American person to be recognized as a Saint by the Roman Catholic Church.

Maria Francesca Cabrini was born on July 15, 1850. During her lifetime, she most notably founded the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. This religious institution provides education, healthcare, and poor relief to those in need from 15 nations, even to this day. In all, Cabrini established 67 schools, orphanages, and other social institutions in both Italy and the US.

She took the name Frances Xavier Cabrini, in honor of Saint Francis Xavier, the Jesuit Missionary of 16th century Spain.

Maria Francesca Cabrini died in Chicago on December 22, 1917, at the age of 67. She now rests at the St Frances Xavier Cabrini Shrine, located in Upper Manhattan in New York. After her death, a campaign began almost immediately for her sainthood. She was beatified in 1938 and canonized in 1946.

The Feast Day of Saint Cabrini is celebrated on November 13 in the USA, on which day she is remembered as the Patron Saint of immigrants.

In March 2024, an American biographical drama film was released to commemorate her life and works. The film beautifully depicts the story of Saint Cabrini, who is portrayed by the actress Cristiana Dell’Anna. It was directed by Alejandro Gomez Monteverde.

4. Saint Josemaria Escriva

Our penultimate saint is Josemaria Escriva. He has been included specifically to highlight the fact that not every saint is adored, admired, or even respected by the general religious population. According to the Vatican journalist John L Allen Jr, Saint Josemaria Escriva is “venerated by millions” of Catholics but “reviled by some.”

Although popular in some areas, it would be reasonable to suggest that devotion to this particular saint is not for everyone.

Josemaria Escriva was born on January 9, 1902, and died on June 26, 1975. He was a Spanish Catholic priest, but is most famous for his association with the organization he founded.

If you had not heard of Escriva himself, you may have heard of his greatest work. Opus Dei, which he established in 1928 at the age of just 26, is still in operation even in the 21st century. Its title translates from Latin to English as “work of God.”

Originally, the group consisted of laypeople and priests striving to find the opportunity for God’s work in every activity of life. To this day, Opus Dei operates in around 60 countries and has approximately 90,000 members worldwide, all of whom are dedicated to Escriva’s principle of everyday holiness.

However, both Opus Dei and Josemaria Escriva have been surrounded by controversy since the 1920s. Many contemporary members of the organization have publicly expressed concern not only over the organization itself, but also over Escriva’s character. They have even gone as far as to question his holiness and personal motivation.

Escriva has been accused of elitism and financial crimes such as money laundering and fraud. These allegations have never been proven, but have tainted the reputation of Escriva in the eyes of many Catholics.

It was John Paul II who portrayed Josemaria Escriva in a completely different light. He described him as “a very human Saint.” He also went on to say, “All those who met him, whatever their culture or social status, felt that he was a father, totally devoted to serving others, for he was convinced that every soul is a marvelous treasure; indeed, every person is worth all of Christ’s blood.”

He addressed potential criticisms with the words, “To be holy does not mean being superior to others; the Saint can be very weak, with many mistakes in his life.”

In the year 2002, just under 30 years after his death, Josemaria Escriva was canonized by Pope John Paul II. In artworks, he is often depicted holding a rosary, dressed in the attire of a priest. He is the patron saint of Opus Dei, the organization he founded, and also of people suffering from diabetes.

5. Saint Mother Teresa

Finally, we move on to our last 20th-century Saint. On August 26, 1910, she was born Anjeze Gonxhe Bojaxhiu. Everyone is sure to know the name she is better known by: Mother Teresa of Calcutta. She has been a saint for nearly a decade, as a special anniversary is approaching. She was canonized by Pope Francis on September 4, 2016.

Saint Mother Teresa is most famous for her care and benevolence for those in need. In 1950, she established an organization known as the Missionaries of Charity. The Missionaries are still in operation today, and have spread to 133 countries, employing 4,500 nuns to voluntarily manage homes and shelters for various good causes. These included sanctuaries, hospitals, and hospices for those suffering from HIV, leprosy, and tuberculosis. The organization also runs soup kitchens, orphanages, mobile clinics, and schools.

Like Mother Teresa herself, members of the Missionaries of Charity vow that they will give “wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor.”

Saint Mother Teresa died on September 5, 1997, having suffered for many years with declining health, and having been diagnosed with heart failure over a year previously.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica describes the record-holding speed with which she reached her beatification: “Within two years of her death, the process to declare her a saint was begun, and Pope John Paul II issued a special dispensation to expedite the process of canonization. She was beatified on 19th October, 2004, reaching the ranks of the blessed in what was then the shortest time in the history of the Church.”

Notably, she won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979. She is now remembered as the patron saint of World Youth Day, Missionaries of Charity, and the Archdiocese of Calcutta.

Her Feast Day is now celebrated annually on September 5.

One of her most famous and inspiring quotes is still used frequently in the present day: “Not all of us can do great things, but we can do small things with great love.”

In the period following the lives of the Apostles of Jesus Christ, Irenaeus of Lyon and other early Christian church leaders faced the challenge of determining which books had authority in the Christian canon. A significant threat to this effort was the Gnostic movement, which, through its own gospels, offered differing views on who Jesus Christ really was.

The Gnostic Threat to Early Christianity

The early church, going back even to the time of the Apostles, had to deal with a general movement that attempted to combine certain parts of Greek philosophy with Christianity, a movement known as Gnosticism. This movement took on various “flavors” in the early Christian centuries, but a common thread was the idea that matter was evil and the spiritual was good. Gnostic believers did not believe that Jesus Christ, if he were the Son of God, would come as a human, because He would have to take an evil “form” to do so. The result was the conclusion that either Jesus Christ came as some sort of phantom that appeared physically, or that He was someone less than God incarnate.

One of the first heretical leaders to promote the idea of a non-corporeal Jesus Christ was Marcion of Sinope. Marcion produced his own gospel around 130-140 AD, which early church fathers generally held to be an edited and redacted version of the Gospel of Luke, and also a list of his own canon of scripture, 10 books, all of which he claimed to be Paul’s epistles.

Marcion of Sinope and the First Redacted New Testament

Irenaeus reacted to Marcion’s beliefs in his work Against Heresies, written around 180-190 AD. In it, Irenaeus formulated four standards upon which he judged canonicity.

1. Apostolic Authorship, or someone with firsthand knowledge, directly from an apostle:

An “apostle” is generally held to be someone who physically saw and was taught by Jesus Christ directly. Irenaeus writes extensively on the “fourfold Gospel” in direct argument against Marcion’s redacted version of Luke. He states, “Let us revert to the Scriptural proof furnished by those apostles who did also write the Gospel, in which they recorded the doctrine regarding God, pointing out that our Lord Jesus Christ is the truth…” (Against Heresies, Book III, Ch 5)

2. Scriptural proof from Revelation that there were four Gospels, as well as nature.

Irenaeus makes use of a passage from Revelation 4, likening the four creatures to the four Gospels:

“And around the throne, on each side of the throne, are four living creatures, full of eyes in front and behind: 7 the first living creature like a lion, the second living creature like an ox, the third living creature with the face of a man, and the fourth living creature like an eagle in flight. 8 And the four living creatures, each of them with six wings, are full of eyes all around and within, and day and night they never cease to say, ‘Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God Almighty, who was and is and is to come!’”

Rev 4:6b-8 ESV

3. Oral tradition and testimony passed down through the church:

Irenaeus held a high view of the churches founded by the apostles, having the true testimony directly from the apostles, who “instituted bishops in the Churches, and [to demonstrate] the succession of these men to our own times; those who neither taught nor knew of anything like what these [heretics] rave about.” (Against Heresies) Book III, Ch3).

Irenaeus makes a strong argument that if the claims of the various gnostic sects were true, then the churches which the apostles founded only a generation or two before would have received such teachings from the apostles.

4. Widespread and common usage:

The testimony from the apostles was the same for each church, and that none of them received the teachings claimed by the gnostics:

“But the Church throughout all the world, having its origin firm from the apostles, perseveres in one and the same opinion with regard to God and His Son”— (Against Heresies Book III Ch 12)

The Legacy of Saint Irenaeus on the Christian Canon

Irenaeus also quoted extensively or alluded to almost every book in the New Testament except for III John, Jude, and Philemon (which are short works). He also used works from non-heretical sources, such as Clement and the Shepherd of Hermas, in his arguments. The only time he quoted from the Gnostic texts was to criticize them.

Irenaeus’ use of the New Testament (and some of the Old) as authoritative helped the church determine the canon in its early centuries. While it would be some time before a more definitive “list” was produced, the recognition and acceptance of what became known as the New Testament as authoritative—and the arguments that established its authority—were present within Christianity almost from its beginning.