Walking around Lisbon is the perfect opportunity to find the most striking murals and installations. You will find incredible art pieces at the most unexpected locations.

For many years, Lisbon saw its buildings covered with unwanted tags. Then, in 2009, the Lisbon City Council opened the Galeria de Arte Urbana (GAU — Urban Art Gallery), whose purpose was to encourage street art and stop people from vandalizing buildings. At the time, GAU invited several artists to create new pieces.

Today, you can find thousands of urban art pieces scattered around Lisbon. In this article, you will find some of the most famous murals and installations.

1. Desassossego by AkaCorleone

Desassossego is a stunning psychedelic mural designed by AkaCorleone. In his hometown, the artist paid tribute to Fernando Pessoa, one of the most intriguing Portuguese writers.

Pessoa was a prolific writer who developed several heteronyms and left hundreds of works unfinished or unpublished. One of them was Livro do Desassossego, a book written by Bernardo Soares, one of Pessoa’s heteronyms. This masterpiece is a remarkable autobiography of Bernardo Soares and was published 47 years after Pessoa’s death. It tries to answer Modernism’s fundamental questions, such as “Who am I?” or “How can I explain reality?”

AkaCorleone captured Pessoa’s delusional essence with this incredible piece. According to the artist’s own words, the mural is called Desassossego since it “represents in a very free way the character that most represents the city of Lisbon, Fernando Pessoa, in a psychedelic dream.”

The Underdog Gallery provided materials for the work and documented the process on video.

AkaCorleone’s real name is Pedro Campiche; he is a Portuguese artist of Swiss descent born in Lisbon in 1985. Graffiti marked his first steps in the art world. However, his repertoire developed to include brightly colored murals and sculptures, which include graphics and typography as part of his signature style.

2. Look Up by AkaCorleone

Another mesmerizing piece by AkaCorleone was created in February 2020 amidst the global pandemic. It was designed for SEAT Art Cities, a project curated by Vhils.

In this piece, the artist was looking to explore the obsessive connection to social media that stops us from enjoying the world around us without realizing all that we are missing out on.

Yet, this piece also represents the profound irony we experienced during the lockdown. While we may be glued to screens and addicted to unstoppable scrolling, the thing that prevents us from enjoying the world becomes our escape from real life.

3. Sophia by Daniel Eime

In the Graça neighborhood, in the heart of Lisbon, you can admire this beautiful stenciled portrait of Sophia de Mello Breyner Anderson (1919-2004) by Daniel Eime.

Sophia was one of the most influential Portuguese poets of the 20th century. During her lifetime, Sophia published several works, including children’s books, and translated a handful of literary masters such as Dante and Shakespeare.

Since Sophia had always been connected to this Lisbon neighborhood, this was the perfect location to pay tribute to her.

Daniel Eime, a Portuguese artist born in Caldas da Rainha in 1986, is the author of this incredible piece. He is considered a master of stencil art, a technique that uses stencils made of paper or cardboard to build an image. For Daniel, most of his stencil creations are inspired by human faces.

4. Tropical Fado in RGB Tones by OzeArv

This must be one of the most eye-catching murals in Lisbon. It was created in 2021 and is one of the 100 urban art pieces selected by the online community Street Art Cities.

Tropical Fado in RGB Tones is a striking urban art piece by OzeArv, a renowned Portuguese artist born in Lisbon in 1980. His murals often depict vivid and colorful representations of birds and other natural elements. Tropical Fado is no exception.

The mural was supported by Lisbon City Council and São Vicent Parish and curated by Galeria de Arte Urbana. Although the artist had the support of a crane and an operator, it took over a month to complete. OzeArv started by outlining the design on the building façade and then filling it in with bold colors.

It might seem that the artist followed a strict design, however, during the process he left some room for imagination. The result is an explosion of color filled with impressive details that combine natural and realistic elements with stylized drawings.

5. Peace Guard by Shepard Fairey

Inspired by the Carnation Revolution, Shepard Fairey created this powerful mural symbolizing peace and freedom.

On the 25th of April 1974, a peaceful and bloodless revolution led by the Portuguese military ended António Salazar’s 40-year dictatorship. At the time, soldiers on the streets placed red carnations in their rifles to celebrate the end of the regime.

As an activist who defends peace and freedom, this was something Shepard Fairey could easily relate to. So, in 2017, Fairey made a mural of a woman soldier with a red carnation on her rifle while looking up as if she was standing in formation. The original design, built in 2017, used red as the main color. Yet, in 2023, during a trip to Lisbon, Fairey decided to retouch his masterpiece by changing the red to blue.

Shepard Fairey is an American artist and activist famous for his Obama “Hope” poster design for the 2008 U.S. presidential election. Fairey is currently considered one of the most influential street artists, having his pieces displayed in Los Angeles, New York, London, and Lisbon.

6. Universal Personhood Lisbon by Shepard Fairey & Vhils

Universal Personhood is a series of art pieces by Shepard Fairey, whose goal is to promote peace and equality. This was inspired by the systematic prejudice against Arabs and Muslims when it comes to discrimination against women.

During a trip to Lisbon in 2018, during the Printed Matters Lisbon Exhibition, Fairey partnered with Vhils to develop a new mural under the Universal Personhood Project.

Alexandre Farto, also known as Vhils, is a Portuguese visual artist born in Lisbon in 1987. He became famous worldwide for his unique bas-relief carving technique, where he removes a wall’s surface layers with unusual tools to create impressive portraits.

The mural depicts a young woman painted in bold and warm colors on the left and sculpted onto the building’s façade on the right. This striking masterpiece’s goal is to call for equal rights for women of all ethnicities and religions.

7. Amália by Vhils

In 2015, Vhils accepted a challenge by Portuguese filmmaker Ruben Alves to create a portrait of the late Fado singer Amália Rodrigues. At the time, Alves was preparing a Fado music record performed by contemporary Fado singers as a tribute to Amália. He figured Fado music was born in the streets, much like Vhils’ artwork.

Unlike other urban art pieces, Vhils created a one-of-a-kind portrait of Amália Rodrigues in Portuguese Cobblestone in the Alfama neighborhood, the birthplace of Fado. With this piece, Vhils draws attention to the craftsmanship of the “calceteiros,” the pavers who keep the Portuguese Cobblestone alive. Simultaneously, the artist also pays tribute to Fado, Amália Rodrigues, and Lisbon culture.

The result is a mesmerizing artwork resembling an ocean wave starting from the ground and moving up the wall. This way, when it rains, it looks like Amália is crying over the Portuguese Cobblestone, a literal representation of the Portuguese saying “Faz chorar as pedras da calçada”—something deeply saddening that makes anyone cry, things which Fado singers used to sing about while wandering Lisbon’s streets.

8. Saudade by Mário Belém

“Saudade” is a unique word in the Portuguese language that it is impossible to translate. Although there are several synonyms in other languages, none truly captures the saudade’s meaning. It translates to the feeling of nostalgia and longing for something or someone so intense and deeply saddening.

Mário Belém, a Portuguese artist born in 1977 in Lisbon, tried to capture the saudade feeling people experienced during the lockdowns in 2020 and 2021. His goal was to represent how we keep longing for the past and not giving ourselves the chance to enjoy the good parts of such difficult times. Once the second lockdown was in place, this mural gained a new meaning, representing a wish for a brighter future.

The mural represents a woman sitting at the edge of a colorful flower pot while gazing upon the word “saudade.” We can feel the woman’s nostalgic feeling of longing for the world to go back to what it once was and the sense of being isolated and lost in her own thoughts.

In the bottom right corner, you can read the words: “Antes perdida por aqui algures, do que a caminho de nenhures” which literally translates to “Better to be lost here somewhere than on my way to nowhere.”

9. Adapta by Add Fuel

Add Fuel is the man behind this stunning mural from 2021. The artist was inspired by people’s resilience and ability to adapt (Adapta) and face the unknown times during the global pandemic.

The mural adapts to its surroundings by adjusting the new patterns and colors with the ones on the existing tiles. That is how Add Fuel found the perfect balance between the two buildings.

With this captivating mural, the artist reflects on how people adjust to a new reality, so they can live happily amidst adversity. At the same time, Add Fuel evokes traditional Portuguese tile making.

Add Fuel, born in 1980 under the name Diogo Machado, is a Portuguese visual artist renowned for his reinterpretation of the traditional Portuguese tile design. You can also find his artwork in France, Belgium, and the USA.

10. Poseidon by PichiAvo

The Poseidon mural designed by the Spanish duo PichiAvo is a masterpiece of Lisbon’s street art scene. The Roman God of the Sea overlooks the Tagus River, where numerous sailors have passed over the years.

This striking mural is the perfect blend of classical art and graffiti. While looking at a distance you can clearly admire Poseidon, if you pay close attention, you will notice the graffiti details.

Pichi studied Fine Arts and Avo, Industrial Design. Then in 2007, they met in Valencia’s graffiti art world. Since then, PichiAvo has developed several projects together, seeking a defining trademark style.

Their artwork is scattered around the world. You can admire it in New York, Porto, Lisbon, Paris, Las Vegas, Montreal, Melbourne, and Valencia.

11. Iberian Lynx by Bordalo II

The Iberian Lynx by Bordalo II is one of the most iconic urban art pieces in Lisbon.

You can admire this multicolored giant lynx at Parque das Nações; it is completely made of waste. The artist’s goal was to raise awareness of an endangered species in the Iberian Peninsula while leaving his own remarks on environmental pollution.

The Iberian Lynx sculpture is part of the Big Trash Animals series. All pieces are entirely made of waste materials that pollute the environment and threaten the animals Bordallo II represents.

Bordallo II is a visual artist born in Lisbon in 1987. He is the grandson of the famous Portuguese painter Artur Real Chaves Bordalo. So far, Bordalo II has used over 60 tons of trash to build these magnificent installations. You can admire his work in Portugal, Switzerland, Italy, the United States, and France.

12. Big Racoon by Bordalo II

Big Racoon is another installation from the Big Trash Animals series by Bordalo II.

This stunning artwork is made of several types of waste, from car bumpers and tires to all sorts of plastic. It was clearly made to be seen from a distance. If you stand too close, you will lose sight of the bigger picture, but you can observe the materials it is made of. The colors light up the image, transforming a pile of trash into a cute raccoon.

Go and see it for yourself and take some time to admire this beautiful artwork.

13. Crono Project

The Crono Project began in 2010 and gathered several national and international artists to design a series of murals on abandoned buildings at Avenida Fontes Pereira de Melo in central Lisbon.

Pedro Soares Neves, Angelo Milano, and Vhils co-curated this project and brought unknown artists together to show their artwork. The goal was to create public art instead of tearing down the Art Nouveau buildings.

Thanks to the Crono Project, you can admire the works of BLU, Os Gémeos, or 2-D SAM3. Later that year, Ericailcane, Bastardilla, Lucy, Mar, and Ram also left their artwork on these buildings.

In 2011, Brad Downey and Momo, together with Vhils, painted two abandoned buildings in Alcântara and Avenida Almirante Reis.

It was dark in the olive grove, the disciples asleep, while Jesus was in fervent prayer. This calm before the storm was so silent that one could not have anticipated the mob arriving with torches and weapons to arrest Jesus, or that they would be led by the disciple Judas Iscariot. No one would have guessed that a single friendly kiss would be the final act of Jesus as a free man.

The Cultural Weight of a Kiss in the Second Temple Period

A kiss has and always will be an intimate act— sometimes done in love and often a sign of kinship, respect, or loyalty. Yet Judas Iscariot made it a sign of betrayal. He led the mob right up to Jesus, identifying him in the dark with a signal he communicated beforehand, saying: “The One I kiss, He’s the One; arrest Him!” (Matthew 26:48). 

Judas pretended to walk up to Jesus as a friend (he was one of the twelve disciples), saying “Greetings, Rabbi!” and then he kissed him. This seemingly friendly greeting was how Judas preserved his self-image and, at the same time, gave Jesus over into the hands of his killers.  “Friend,” Jesus asked Judas, “why have you come?” 

Identifying the Target Through a Perversion of Intimacy

Before photographs, the mob would not know how to identify Jesus if they hadn’t seen him before. And if they did know what he looked like before man-made light, they might not have been able to recognize him in the dark garden of Gethsemane, with olive trees surrounding them and at least ten other men around.

That is perhaps why Judas Iscariot felt it necessary to identify Jesus in this way. He walked right up to the rabbi, past the disciples, because he was one of them and didn’t seem to pose a threat. 

Did Judas Act Out of Character or Surprise Jesus?

Yet when we read the whole of the Gospels, this act of betrayal from Judas is not that surprising. Throughout the story, Judas is described as a money-hungry, obsessive zealot. He steals from the disciples’ money bag and is generally painted in an ugly light. Judas took the payment of 30 pieces of silver for leading them straight to Jesus. 

Judas did not surprise Jesus with the betrayal; Jesus had already predicted that Judas would turn on Him during the Last Supper, earlier that night. 

Interestingly, the Gospel of John does not include the kiss:

“Then Jesus, knowing everything that was about to happen to Him, went out and said to them, “Who is it you’re looking for?” “Jesus the Nazarene,” they answered. “I am He,” Jesus told them. Judas, who betrayed Him, was also standing with them.” — John 18:4-5

Cognitive Dissonance and the Traitor’s Internal Conflict

In modern psychological frameworks, cognitive dissonance is experienced when one’s beliefs, values, and circumstances are in conflict. 

Judas Iscariot likely experienced disappointment when Jesus was not the violent warlord the Jews wanted. He devoted years of his life to the Messiah only to realize he didn’t agree with his methods. He might have even seen Jesus as a dangerous leader who distracted people from the Temple’s teachings. Yet, Judas was in with them, likely leading to serious inner turmoil. 

It is highly probable that Judas sought “confirmation bias” by going to the religious leaders to validate what he felt. He actively sought out those who already openly shared his view of Jesus. The kiss offered a confused Judas the perfect solution: He could be a disciple and an informant simultaneously. 

Was Judas Trying to Get Jesus to Fight?

There’s another theory stating that Judas kissed Jesus and brought the mob to him in an attempt to force Jesus’ hand into starting a rebellion. Finally, the violent prophecies would be fulfilled where God saved His people and overthrew their oppressors (the Roman Empire). The other disciples were certainly ready for a fight. A bizarre detail in the middle of Jesus’ arrest states that one of them immediately cut off the ear of a member of the mob, which Jesus swiftly heals before he is led away into the dark night. 

Another theory states that the kiss was an attempt to trigger a divine intervention that Judas believed was overdue. He might have hoped that God would step in, send down His angelic armies, and conquer all who were against them.

The Aftermath of the Kiss

In Matthew 27:3, it is written that Judas was filled with remorse when he saw Jesus being arrested. He commits suicide, and his story ends tragically, because he does not live to witness the resurrection of Jesus or see the risen Christ. Judas did not get a chance to restore his relationship with Jesus or recognize his mistake, unlike Peter, who was restored to Christ in John 21. 

The “kiss of Judas” or even just the name “Judas” has become a permanent metaphor for betrayal in Western literature and politics. He is always painted in yellow to indicate his treacherous ways.

Long before Nietzsche challenged morality and the knowledge of his contemporaries, Pyrrhonian skeptics pioneered radical doubt. By suspending judgment (epoche) and seeking tranquility (ataraxia), they questioned the very possibility of knowledge. Nietzsche admired their relentless critique of dogma but rejected their passive detachment, instead transforming skepticism into a life-affirming philosophy of struggle and creativity. This article examines the origins, core principles, and enduring impact of ancient skepticism, tracing its resonance in Nietzsche’s provocative philosophy.

Origins of Ancient Skepticism

Ancient skepticism emerged in Greece around the 4th century BC as a radical alternative to the dogmatic philosophies of the time. Its rise coincided with a period of intellectual fragmentation, in which competing philosophical schools advanced incompatible accounts of nature, knowledge, and the good life. The apparent failure of these systems to secure agreement or certainty prompted some thinkers to question whether such foundations were attainable at all. Skeptics responded by turning their attention away from the construction of metaphysical systems and toward the limits of human cognition itself.

Skeptics questioned the very possibility of certain knowledge, advocating the suspension of judgment (epoche) as a path to peace of mind (ataraxia). Unlike Plato or Aristotle, who sought foundational truths capable of grounding ethics and knowledge, skeptics argued that human faculties are limited and fallible, and that claims to certainty often exceed what experience can justify.

Two primary schools developed: Academic Skepticism and Pyrrhonian Skepticism. Academic Skepticism developed within Plato’s Academy in the generations following Plato. Figures such as Arcesilaus (315-240 BC) transformed the school into a skeptical institution that denied the possibility of certain knowledge and held that beliefs could at best be considered probable.

Pyrrhonian Skepticism, named after Pyrrho of Elis (360-275 BC), went further by refusing to endorse even this conclusion. Instead, it emphasized the persistent balance of opposing arguments. They asserted that for every proposition there exists an equally persuasive counter-proposition. Pyrrhonism additionally aimed to function as a practical mode of inquiry by promoting an engagement with the world without committing to fixed beliefs.

Core Tenets of Pyrrhonian Skepticism

Pyrrhonian skepticism is as much practical as philosophical. Its central principle is withholding assent to any claim, a suspension of judgement known as epoche. Skeptics weigh every proposition against an opposing argument, a method formalized as the ten “tropes” by Sextus Empiricus. Observing a table, for example, they might note contradictory perceptions of its color or weight, thus demonstrating that certainty is elusive.

The ultimate goal of their approach was ataraxia, a type of mental tranquility unshaken by the presence of doubt. In other words, it was a form of humility that acknowledges the limits of perception and reason. This approach also had ethical implications. By acknowledging the fallibility of reason and perception, the skeptic avoided conflict.

Skepticism also introduced the idea of epistemic relativism. Because beliefs vary across cultures, contexts, and individuals, no single perspective is privileged. Experience and reflection take precedence over rigid truths. Such questioning creates a mindset of cautious inquiry, which would later influence Nietzsche and partially inform his critique of moral and metaphysical dogma. While Pyrrhonian tranquility differs from Nietzsche’s affirmative philosophy, the method of radical questioning provided him with tools to confront inherited systems of thought.

Key Figures and Their Legacy

Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360–275 BC) was born in the Peloponnesian city of Elis. He traveled extensively, including journeys with Alexander the Great, observing a wide variety of peoples and their customs.

Little of his own writing survives. Our knowledge of him comes mainly from Diogenes Laertius and later skeptics. These sources portray Pyrrho as a careful, inquisitive observer whose life embodied the curiosity and intellectual experimentation of a Greek philosopher in the Hellenistic era. His teachings emphasized observing life without rigid judgments, whilst valuing open-mindedness and the careful weighing of appearances. His teachings encouraged a view of the world guided by prudence and practical wisdom rather than abstract theorizing.

Although Pyrrho is credited as the founder of Pyrrhonian skepticism, it was Timon of Phlius who transformed his ideas into a coherent, often satirical, critique of dogmatism. Timon’s writings, though mostly surviving in fragments, illustrate skepticism as a lived practice by way of an attitude that balanced humor with irony.

Centuries later, Sextus Empiricus codified these teachings further. Unlike Pyrrho or Timon, whose views survive only through later testimony, Sextus Empiricus is known primarily through his own writings, which provide the most systematic and influential account of Pyrrhonian skepticism. For example, his “Outlines of Pyrrhonism” detailed ten tropes for suspending judgment and emphasized skepticism as a practical tool for tranquility and not merely intellectual doubt. Sextus’s work preserved Pyrrhonian methods and ensured their influence on later philosophers, from Renaissance thinkers to early modern empiricists like Montaigne and Hume.

For Nietzsche, Pyrrhonian skepticism represented both inspiration and contrast. Its disciplined questioning (epoche) provided a model for critically interrogating tradition and morality. Yet its pursuit of serene detachment (ataraxia) conflicted with his provocative philosophy of renewal.

Nietzsche’s Encounter With Skepticism

Nietzsche approached ancient skepticism as a serious philosophical challenge and was drawn to its refusal to accept inherited beliefs without question. The skeptical practice of epoche appealed to Nietzsche because it disrupted moral and metaphysical systems that claimed certainty where none could be justified. In this sense, skepticism offered him a way to expose how deeply entrenched beliefs often rest on authorities or fear rather than truth.

This influence can be seen in Nietzsche’s method of critique. Like the skeptics, he questioned the foundations of knowledge and morality by showing how competing interpretations undermine claims to absolute truth. Moral values, religious doctrines, and philosophical systems were not treated as timeless facts but as products of history and human psychology. Skeptical questioning allowed Nietzsche to reveal the instability of these systems and to challenge their authority without immediately replacing them with new certainties.

However, Nietzsche did not adopt skepticism as a final position. Where Pyrrhonian skeptics sought balance between opposing views, Nietzsche used conflict as a productive force. Rather than suspending judgment in favor of neutrality, he pushed ideas against one another in order to expose their weaknesses and hidden assumptions. Skepticism, for Nietzsche, functioned as a tool for clearing ground and opening space for new possibilities.

Nietzsche’s Answer to Skepticism

Despite his admiration for skeptical discipline, Nietzsche ultimately rejected the Pyrrhonian goal of ataraxia, or tranquility. He viewed the pursuit of peace of mind as a retreat from life rather than a philosophical achievement. For Nietzsche, the desire to avoid disturbance often reflected weariness not wisdom. A philosophy that aimed primarily at calm seemed to him ill-suited to a world defined by struggle and uncertainty, and the changes that the individual needed to make.

Nietzsche’s alternative was an active engagement with life’s difficulties. His idea of the “will to power” framed growth as a process of self-overcoming. Instead of seeking relief from contradiction, Nietzsche believed that meaning arises through confronting it. His break from skepticism meant avoiding its inherent limitations that resulted in the loss of “any conception of independence of decision, of the valiant feeling of pleasure in willing” (Beyond Good and Evil, 208).

For Nietzsche, uncertainty was not something that should be neutralized but something to be transformed into a source of strength and creativity. At the same time, ancient skepticism’s emphasis on tranquility stood opposed to his affirmative philosophy, which demanded risk and a commitment to life’s conflicts. Although Nietzsche rejected skepticism as a way of life, he retained its discipline of inquiry, using it to challenge inherited values, cultivate multiple perspectives, and unsettle the moral order he believed had grown stagnant.

The Enduring Influence of Ancient Skepticism

Ancient skepticism endures not because it resolves philosophical problems, but because it refuses to let them harden into dogma. Pyrrhonian skepticism offered a disciplined way of confronting uncertainty, exposing the fragility of claims to truth and the limits of human understanding. Its emphasis on suspension and tranquility represented one possible response to a world marked by disagreement and instability.

Nietzsche’s engagement with this tradition reveals both its power and its limits. He inherited the skeptical impulse to question inherited values and unsettle claims to certainty, but he refused to limit himself to skepticism’s therapeutic teachings.

What emerges from this encounter is not a rejection of skepticism, but its transformation. Skeptical doubt becomes a precondition for self-overcoming rather than an end in itself. The legacy of ancient skepticism, which survives in Nietzsche’s work, contributes to its intensity. At his best, Nietzsche exposes the weakness in accepting ready-made truths coupled with a demand to create new values in their absence.

Today, the skeptical tradition resonates in fields beyond philosophy. In science, psychology, and critical theory, the practice of questioning assumptions and suspending premature judgment fosters innovation and ethical reflection. Ancient skepticism’s insistence on inquiry over dogma encourages modern thinkers to embrace uncertainty as a catalyst for intellectual and creative growth.

We know from the historical record that our ancestors marked time and organized their lives around the changing of the seasons, with major festivals associated with moments such as the height of summer, the harvest, and winter hibernation. As modern paganism celebrates our pre-Christian past and looks to re-embrace ancient traditions, it has developed its own spiritual calendar centered on the solstices and equinoxes and the rhythm of nature. This is known as the Wheel of the Year. Drawn principally from the traditions of Ireland and other Celtic nations, these are the major dates that characterize the pagan Wheel of the Year.

Imbolc (February 1/2)

Imbolc, the festival traditionally observed on February 1st and 2nd in the Northern Hemisphere, is a Gaelic seasonal festival celebrated between the winter solstice and the spring equinox, marking the transition from winter to spring. As ancient traditions merged into Christianity, it became known as Saint Brigid’s Day, celebrating the Irish goddess Brigid, who transformed into the patron saint of Ireland. Brigid is a goddess of wisdom, healing, poetry, and protection. Saint Brigid was reportedly a 6th-century abbess of Kildare who gained sainthood, but the two are often impossible to untwine.

While Imbolc appears less often in surviving early Irish literature than other festivals, scholars agree that it was a pre-Christian agrarian festival connected to the lambing season and the goddess Brigid. Moder traditions such as weaving Brigid’s crosses, parading Brídeóg dolls, and visiting holy wells probably date to ancient times. Archaeological evidence suggests this date was important as far back as Neolithic times, as tombs aligned with the sun at Imbolc and Samhain have been discovered.

In Ireland, many ancient traditions can be seen in Saint Brigid Day celebrations. In County Kerry, the annual Biddy’s Day Festival has participants in straw hats and masks carrying a Brídeóg to secure protection and prosperity, along with folk music, lectures, and cross-weaving workshops, culminating in a torchlit parade. Since 2009, County Louth has hosted the Brigid of Faughart Festival, integrating pilgrimage, poetry, and scholarly reflection on Brigid as saint and goddess. There is also Derry’s Imbolc International Music Festival and Marsden’s Imbolc Fire Festival, which stages lantern processions and symbolic battles.

Ostara (March 20-23)

Ostara is often credited with being one of the inspirations for Christian Easter. It is the festival of the spring equinox, marking the transition between the depths of winter and the ascent toward summer. The term derives from Jacob Grimm’s reconstruction of an Old High German form of the Old English Ēostre, an Anglo-Saxon goddess described by Bede as honored with feasts during “Eosturmonath,” corresponding to April in the Julian calendar.

Linguistically linked to “east” and “dawn,” Eostre/Ostara symbolizes renewal and the awakening of nature. It is the second spring festival within the Wheel of the Year, the first, Imbolc, celebrating the emergence of the goddess, while at Ostara she matures and unites with the sun god in sacred marriage.

Many modern Easter symbols can be linked to Ostara, including eggs and rabbits, which represent fertility. Ostara, when the length of the day and night are in balance, is when the planting season would start in earnest.

Beltane (May 1)

Beltane, the May Day festival, is held on May 1st and marks the onset of summer and occupies the midpoint between the spring equinox and the summer solstice. Also known as Cétshamhain (first of summer), it is referenced in early Irish and Scottish literature and was associated with pastoral practices such as driving cattle to summer pastures.

Beltane was marked with protective rituals involving bonfires, as the flames, smoke, and ashes were believed to safeguard people, livestock, and crops. Communities extinguished household fires and rekindled them from the sacred Beltane flame. Cattle were passed between fires to secure blessings, and people often leapt over fires for good luck. Women who wanted to become pregnant would place a cauldron over a fire and jump across it. Children who were conceived at this time of year were said to be special and potentially possess a unique connection to the spiritual realm.

The 10th-century Sanas Cormaic interprets Beltane as “lucky fire” or “fire of Bel,” underscoring its divine associations. Beyond agrarian rites, Beltane celebrated fertility, creativity, and communal joy, expressed through courtship dances, Maypole rituals, and symbolic acts of conception. Other festivities included feasting, offerings to deities, adornment of homes and livestock with yellow May flowers, visits to holy wells, and the use of Beltane dew as beauty products.

Litha (June 20-21)

Litha, or Midsummer, is celebrated on the summer solstice on the 20th or 21st of June and marks the formal beginning of summer. Modern celebrations draw on various cultural traditions. Among the Celts, hilltop bonfires and dancing were common, with participants leaping through flames for luck and vitality. Other European customs included igniting wheels and rolling them into rivers or lakes, symbolizing solar energy and renewal. The solstice, the longest day of the year, was often interpreted as a cosmic contest between light and darkness.

Archaeological evidence demonstrates that the summer solstice has been important since the Neolithic era. Monuments such as Stonehenge in England, Newgrange in Ireland, and Bryn Celli Ddu in Wales were deliberately aligned with sunrises or sunsets on the solstice.

The Old English word “midsumor” attests to its enduring recognition, while Christian reinterpretations frame midsummer fires as symbols of St. John the Baptist and protection against malign forces. Modern observances include gatherings at Stonehenge, herbal rituals using plants such as St. John’s Wort and Lavender, and communal activities that emphasize reverence for nature’s energy.

The name Litha comes from the Anglo-Saxon names for the months of June and July, līða, which fall on either side of the solstice.

Lughnasadh (August 1)

Lughnasadh, celebrated on August 1st, is a festival marking the commencement of the harvesting season and was historically celebrated across the British Isles. Positioned between the summer solstice and autumn equinox, it symbolized the first fruits of agricultural labor and the delicate balance between nature’s bounty and human effort. For agrarian communities, Lughnasadh inaugurated the reaping of corn, a process that continued until Samhain.

Rooted in Celtic tradition, the festival celebrates the god Lugh, renowned for mastery of skills and crafts, and commemorates his foster-mother Tailtiu, who, according to legend, died after preparing Ireland for cultivation. Rituals included feasting, athletic contests, storytelling, matchmaking, and offerings, blending solemn remembrance with communal joy.

Later, Anglo-Saxon communities observed Lammas, or “Loaf Mass,” on the same date, a Christianized harvest festival marked by baking bread from the first grain and blessing it within the Church.

Mabon (September 21-23)

Mabon is celebrated around September 21–23 in the Northern Hemisphere to coincide with the autumn equinox. It is when communities started collecting fruit, nuts, and grains to store for the colder winter months ahead.

While evidence for how the Celts marked Mabon is limited, we know more about other cultures. The Mayans designed Chichen Itzá to capture equinoctial sunlight, while Neolithic and Bronze Age communities constructed monuments such as Carin T in Ireland and Mnajdra in Malta to align with sunrise on the equinox.

Mythologically, Mabon represents the descent of the Sun King and the Goddess’s transformation into her crone aspect, paralleling Persephone’s journey to the Underworld. The Greek Eleusinian Mysteries similarly underpin life, death, and rebirth, reflecting harvest symbolism.

The modern name “Mabon” was introduced in the 1970s by Aidan Kelly, inspired by Welsh mythology of Mabon ap Modron, “Son of the Mother.” Contemporary Pagan observances intertwine ancient harvest traditions with modern interpretations, honoring deities, vegetation cycles, and the balance of light and shadow.

Samhain (October 31-November 1)

Perhaps the most famous sabbat of the Pagan Wheel is Samhain, because it corresponds with the modern festival of Halloween. Samhain festival started at sunset on October 31st and continued throughout November 1st, marking the end of the harvest season and the onset of winter, often described as the “darker half” of the year.

Originating in Ireland, Samhain was widely celebrated across Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man, with its Welsh equivalent known as Calan Gaeaf. It functioned both as a pastoral harvest festival and as the Celtic New Year. This was a time when the veil between the worlds was considered at its thinnest, and the chances of supernatural encounters were most likely. Consequently, bonfires were central to celebrations as they were believed to offer protection from the unseen.

Archaeological evidence, such as the alignment of Neolithic tombs like the Mound of the Hostages at Tara, suggests its observance predates Celtic culture. Literary sources from the 9th century describe feasts, gatherings, and the opening of burial mounds as portals to the Otherworld.

Ancestors were revered with offerings, while costumes and masks were worn to ward off harmful forces. Later traditions included mumming and guising, first recorded in 16th-century Scotland, spreading back to Ireland before evolving into modern Halloween customs. Mumming and guising involved dressing up in faerie-inspired attire and reciting verse in return for food or other gifts, while some participants would threaten mischievous practical jokes if they did not receive such a reward.

Christianity incorporated ancestor veneration into All Saints’ and All Souls’ Days, while Irish emigrants carried Samhain-derived practices to America, where they blended with local harvest traditions. Turnip and potato carving developed into pumpkin carving, and mumming and guising became “trick or treating,” shaping Halloween into a major cultural festival in the United States.

Yule (December 20-21)

Yule is a winter festival historically central to the lives of Germanic peoples, later merged with Christmas during Christianization. The term “Yule” remains in English, Scandinavian, Finnish, and Estonian to denote Christmastide. Several modern customs, including the Yule log, Yule goat, and Yule singing, may derive from older pagan traditions.

Yule is attested to in early Germanic calendars, such as the Gothic Fruma Jiuleis (5th–6th century AD), and in Bede’s 8th-century account of the Anglo-Saxon months geola or giuli. The Saga of Hákon the Good credits King Haakon I of Norway with aligning Yule to Christian Christmas, mandating communal ale feasts as part of the celebration.

In pre-Christian Britain, Druids marked the solstice by cutting mistletoe from sacred oaks, representing life amid winter darkness. They also lit a Yule log, a twelve-day fire to banish evil, ensure luck, and celebrate renewal.

Modern pagan traditions interpret Yule diversely, yet Wicca commonly observes it at the winter solstice as the rebirth of the Horned God, representing the newborn sun. Practices range from private rites to coven gatherings, with intentions of peace, harmony, and resilience amid winter’s symbolic darkness and historical hardship.

Around four thousand years ago, the city-state of Assur expanded into the Empire of Assyria, the largest the world had seen at that point. It lasted for almost two thousand years, ruled by many fascinating kings. With a belief in divinely sanctioned imperialism, the Assyrian kings and their cult-like following were nearly unstoppable in their conquests across the Middle East. Explore the timeline of Assyrian history and the rise and fall of the Assyrian Empire.

Assyrian Timeline Overview

Early Assyria (2500-2000 BC)

Assyria first became an independent city-state under the rule of Purzur-Ashur I in 2025 BC when the city of Assur broke away from the waning Ur Empire. The head of state was not yet referred to as “king.” Little evidence survives to indicate what Assyria was like in this period, but a few inscriptions suggest an intensive construction program.

During the reign of Purzur-Ashur I’s son and successor, a temple was built for the city’s patron god, Assur, dedicated by both the king and his people. Erishum I came to power in 1973 BC and was the grandson of Purzur-Ashur I and the third independent ruler of the city-state of Assur.

Erishum I’s reign was significant as it ushered in an era of free trade, which quickly enriched the Assyrian king through taxation and tolls. He cemented Assur’s position in Mesopotamia as an important trading center.

Old Assyrian Period (2025-1364 BC)

The rule of Shamshi-Adad I established the precedent for what Assyria would later be infamous for: war and conquest. Originally a king of the Amorite people, a nomadic, semitic-speaking group from western Mesopotamia, Shamshi-Adad I usurped the Assyrian throne from the ruling family, still descended from Purzur-Ashur I, in 1808 BC.

Shamshi-Adad I was not content with expanding his kingdom to include Assur. The newly established monarch began conquering neighboring city-states and acquired lands that would later become the Assyrian heartland. Most notably, Shamshi-Adad I consolidated the city of Nineveh around 1792 BC.

However, Shamshi-Adad I’s success was short-lived. Upon his death, Shamshi-Adad I’s sons and successors could not maintain the lands he had taken. Assyria entered what historians call the “Assyrian Dark Age” around 1776 BC, which lasted until the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire on the eve of the 16th century BC. The absence of an authoritative state in Mesopotamia allowed Assyria to resurge.

Middle Assyrian Empire (1363-1050 BC)

Little historical evidence survives from the Assyrian Dark Age, but gradually, government records began to reappear. However, it was not until much later, after Assyria broke free from the reigning Mitanni, that power began to return to the city of Assur. The turning point is marked by the rule of Assyrian King Ashur-Uballit I, starting around 1363 BC. Once Ashur-Uballit I achieved independence, he set about expanding Assyrian territories.

Although gains were initially small, the new Assyrian ruler gradually enlarged his domain. More significant was the changing political formation of Assyrian kingship and the rise of the cult of the king. Ashur-Uballit established himself as a great king and declared it was his duty to bring uneducated or foreign people under Assyrian rule.

Still a new power in the Mesopotamian political sphere, the succeeding Assyrian kings wanted to make their presence known and cement their position among the accepted powers. Adad-Nirari I’s reign is debated, but after he was crowned in either 1305 or 1295 BC, he launched a war against one of the oldest civilizations in the ancient Near East: Babylon.

Important Middle Assyrian Kings

Aggressive Imperialism

Adad-Nirari I was successful in his battle against Babylon at the Battle of Kar Istar in 1280 BC. He was content with this victory, and any tension between the two nations subsided. His son, Shalmaneser I, was far more ambitious. Almost immediately, Shalmaneser I went to war against the Mitanni and leveled their capital, Washukanni, in the second year of his reign, which was either 1274 or 1264 BC.

Shalmaneser I’s son pushed further expansion and continued a war started by his predecessor with the Hittites. Tukulti-Ninurta I ascended the throne around 1243, and despite a message of best wishes, Tukulti-Ninurta I swiftly turned his attention to his perceived enemy in the north.

Assyria crushed the Hittites in the Battle of Nihriya in 1237 BC. Building momentum, Tukulti-Ninurta I then attacked Babylon. The Assyrian government utilized the aforementioned cult of the king to justify Tukulti-Ninurta I’s assault on Babylon as divinely ordained. The Babylonian ruler had allegedly abandoned religious rites and invaded Assyria first.

This piece of propaganda is named the “Tukulti-Ninurta I Epic.” It styled the king a legendary warrior and an almost mythical figure. This added to the religious grandiosity of the Assyrian kings.

Aftermath of the Bronze Age Collapse (1050-900 BC)

Tukulti-Ninurta I reigned for an estimated 37 years, but by the end of his reign, his popularity was faltering. In the wake of his assassination, his son, who was implicated in the plot, only sat on the throne for a couple of years. Assyrian power stalled. This occurred simultaneously with the Bronze Age Collapse, although Assyria fared much better than many other civilizations.

The rulers who followed were largely insignificant, not conquering new lands and also losing territories to their neighbors. However, Tiglath-Pileser I was crowned in 1114 BC and made geopolitical waves. He expanded into the lands of southern nomadic tribes and fought on Assyria’s western border with the Syrians and Armenian people.

The annals of Tiglath-Pileser I record the strategic aims of the Assyrian king. Notably, he greatly valued the military prowess of horses and aimed to procure more from subjugated states. Furthermore, he referenced how he pacified rebelling cities through such measures as taking hostages and occasional human sacrifices to spread terror.

Like with Tukulti-Ninurta I, the brief spark ignited by Tiglath-Pileser I dissipated when the crown passed to his son. Assyria was now lacking a charismatic leader with military expertise and had to pivot to a defensive position. Ultimately, decades of slow decline followed.

Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC)

Ashur-Dan II rose to the challenge of restoring Assyrian prominence when he ascended to the throne in 934 BC. This marked the start of a renewed, heightened Assyrian presence in the region. Historians call Ashur-Dan II the last king of the Middle Assyrian Empire, as he took a markedly different trajectory from his predecessors.

Ashur-Dan II utilized brutality, similar to Tiglath-Pileser I, and infamously had the king of the conquered city of Katmuhu flayed before hanging his skin from the city walls of Arbela. The great-grandson of Ashur-Dan II, Ashurnasirpal II, oversaw the eruption of Assyrian power. The third ruler of the Neo-Assyrian Empire was crowned in 883 BC and promptly quelled uprisings in the cities nearest to the Assyrian heartland.

At home, Ashurnasirpal II greatly improved Assyrian infrastructure by expanding water and food reserves, upgrading the royal residences, and even constructing a new palace at Nimrud. The famous Balawat Gates were started by Ashurnasirpal II, and likely added to by his son and successor.

Moreover, Ashurnasirpal II campaigned as far as the Mediterranean Sea and received tribute from numerous states, which boosted the Assyrian economic power.

Important Neo-Assyrian Kings

From Strength to Strength

Shalmaneser III succeeded his father, Ashurnasirpal II, and continued applying the same military pressure across the ancient Near East. Shalmaneser III’s reign began in 859 BC, and within a year, he had quelled the unstable territories around the Euphrates River. In 856 BC, Shalmaneser III launched an ambitious attack on Urartu, Assyria’s greatest enemy at the time.

Through a dangerous and unpredictable route through the Taurus Mountains, Shalmaneser III surprised Urartu and sacked their capital. Additionally, Shalmaneser III supported an uprising in Babylon, which created a strong ally in the new Babylonian king. When Shalmaneser III’s thirty-five-year rule concluded in 823 BC, he had created a strong base for the future.

Tiglath-Pileser III further elevated Assyria’s presence on the global stage when he ascended to the throne in 745 BC. Historians widely describe Tiglath-Pileser III as the instigator who put Assyria on its path to true imperial supremacy in Mesopotamia. He conquered lands rather than just establishing vassal kingdoms. He marched on powerful kingdoms, including Babylon, Urartu, the Hittites, and Phoenician cities.

The Sargonid Kings

The Neo-Assyrian Empire probably reached its height under the Sargonid kings. Sargon II usurped power from his brother, or possibly a more distant relative, becoming king in 722 BC. He immediately faced unrest and countered the turmoil by deporting those who opposed him.

Sargon II launched his army both east and west of the Assyrian heartland and conquered city-states in Anatolia, Elam, and Urartu. He took the ancient city of Carchemish in 717 BC and subjugated the Philistine city of Ashdod in 713 BC.

Furthermore, Sargon II declared that the Babylonian patron deity, Marduk, had told him to overthrow the king of Babylon, who had been unfaithful to the gods. The Babylonian king fled, and Sargon II met little resistance when he entered the city in 710 BC. However, the invasion of Babylon would become the Assyrian ruler’s undoing. He remained in Babylon for the next three years and participated in various local traditions. This was unpopular with the Assyrian elite, who saw this as a betrayal of the divine right of conquest and the elevation of Marduk over their own patron deity, Assur.

When Sargon was killed in battle just two years after leaving Babylon, his body was lost in the bloodshed and did not receive a proper burial. This was considered a bad omen and a curse. It greatly affected his son and successor, Sennacherib, who distanced himself from his father. He did not mention him in any of his inscriptions and quickly abandoned Sargon’s capital for a new city.

The Cost of Control

Sennacherib ascended to the throne in 705 BC and was instantly forced into battle with the kingdoms that had ceased paying tribute upon Sargon II’s death. After two years, Sennacherib reasserted Assyrian control over Babylon, but to ensure he could continue his wars elsewhere, he installed a vassal king. He would still soon find himself facing conflict on multiple fronts.

In 701 BC, Sennacherib invaded deep into the Levant. The Hebrew Bible discusses Sennacherib’s failed siege of Jerusalem, but evidence suggests he was able to force tribute from the city. Almost simultaneously, the Assyrian vassal king in Babylon faced considerable opposition from the locals.

As a solution, Sennacherib placed his eldest son on the Babylonian throne, allowing him to turn his attention to decimating Elamite cities. But this saw an Elamite faction march on Babylon, kidnap Sennacherib’s son, and execute him in 694 BC. In response, Sennacherib decimated Babylon, destroying ancient religious icons and temples.

Making Amends

Despite a relatively peaceful end to his reign, Sennacherib’s actions in Babylon proved unpopular at home in Assyria. Ultimately, his son, who was crowned in 681 BC, wanted to make reparations in Babylon, which had long been considered an important religious center in the region.

The new king, Esarhaddon, restored Babylon to its former glory and then turned his attention to rebelling tribes and potential territorial gains. Esarhaddon began the conquest of Egypt with military success in 671 BC. In spite of his military successes, his consistent illnesses suggested to the Assyrian elite that he was losing favor with the gods.

After multiple rebellions in the Assyrian heartland, including in the royal seat of Nineveh, Esarhaddon had multiple conspirators executed. To further secure his position, he decreed that his eldest son, Shamash-shum-ukin, would rule Babylon, and his younger son, Ashurbanipal, would be King of Assyria following his death. Moreover, he had everyone from the Assyrian elite to remote vassal leaders swear allegiance to this plan.

Esarhaddon died of natural causes in 669 BC, and the ascension of both brothers took place smoothly. Under Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian Empire reached its absolute zenith, securing Egypt through the conquest of Thebes in 664 BC. Additionally, Ashurbanipal defeated the Elamites in a dramatic decade-long war and eventually had their king put to death in 653 BC.

Stretched Too Thin

Ashurbanipal is often said to be the last great king of Assyria, as, after his death, Assyrian power dwindled and the Empire lost considerable territories. When Ashur-etil-ilani ascended the throne in 631 BC, many city-states broke away, and the new king was preoccupied with instability at home. An insurgency was attempted by the Chief Eunuch, although it was eventually thwarted.

Ashur-etil-ilani’s reign only lasted four years, and a leading eunuch, Sin-shum-lishir, was able to usurp the throne for three months in 626 BC. He was ousted by Sinsharishkun, another son of Ashurbanipal. Sinsharishkun fought a brutal and continuous war against Babylonia, which, for the first time in centuries, was able to make waves into the Assyrian heartland.

The Babylonians launched an attack on the city of Assur, and with Assyria’s weakness on full display to the rest of Mesopotamia, other enemies who had been conquered or forced to pay tribute seized the opportunity for revenge and joined the attack. A united front of Median tribes aided the Babylonians in sacking Nimrud and Nineveh.

The Aftermath (After 609 BC)

Following massacres in the most prominent Assyrian cities, the Empire completely collapsed in 609 BC. While some small pockets of Assyrian people and the Assyrian culture survived, their presence on the global stage completely disappeared. Other city-states, notably Babylon, moved to take advantage of the power vacuum.

The Assyrian Empire’s two millennia of expansion reshaped the Near East by pioneering new models of kingship, warfare, and imperial administration. Beginning with Ashur‑Uballit I’s break from Mitanni rule, Assyria developed a political ideology that framed the king as a divinely sanctioned conqueror, a theme visible in declarations, such as when Sargon II went to war with Babylon.

Assyrian kings expanded this vision through relentless military campaigns, and by the Neo‑Assyrian period, rulers like Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III transformed Assyria into a dominant regional power.

Later kings, including Sargon II and Ashurbanipal, extended Assyrian influence across Egypt, Anatolia, and Elam, creating the largest empire the Near East had seen. Although the Empire ultimately collapsed under the pressure of internal strife and external coalitions, its administrative systems, military innovations, and imperial ideology left a lasting imprint on the political landscape of the ancient Near East.

Although music played a significant role in daily life in ancient Greece, most original melodies have been lost, leaving a gap in our historical understanding.

Recent scholarly efforts to reconstruct the sound of ancient Greek music, utilizing archaeological discoveries and papyrus fragments, have provided interesting insights. Modern reconstructions of ancient Greek music not only illuminate the sounds themselves but also deepen our understanding of Greek society and its values and cultural practices, demonstrating the enduring significance of music from antiquity to the present.

Music: The Heartbeat of Ancient Greece

Music formed an important part of life in ancient Greek society. It affected all aspects of life, ranging from education to religion. It also played a major role in entertainment and was important even in warfare.

Music and gymnastics were central to the Greek educational system, shaping both the mind and body of young citizens. In schools, music was used as a key part of learning, with students studying instruments and singing as an essential aspect of their development.

During religious events such as rituals and sacrifices associated with the cults of Apollo and Dionysus, music served to honor the gods and created a sacred atmosphere. In these settings, processional hymns, choral pieces, and instrumental performances helped mark significant moments within rituals. On a more esoteric note, music combined with offerings and periods of fasting played an important role for prophets seeking religious ecstasy. In these mystic rites, music helped prophets achieve the altered state of consciousness necessary to deliver divinations and share prophecies with the community.

Even in wartime, music was important. However, it was not entertainment. Certain sounds on the trumpet dictated commands to soldiers on the battlefield. The aulos and percussion instruments accompanied orders given to oarsmen by the boatswain. Through music, the oarsmen could keep their rowing synchronized.

Types of Ancient Greek Music

Several types of music existed in ancient Greece for various purposes. Hymns are some of the earliest types of music and address a god(dess) in a metric composition. Further, a paean in honor of Apollo or Athena might express hope for deliverance or thanksgiving after a victorious battle. A prosodion was a type of hymn or processional praise of a god(dess) and was sung along the way to an altar or shrine. In the same vein, the hyperchema, a dance song with rhythmic movement, is often linked to paeans and is sometimes even indistinguishable.

But not all ancient Greek music was solemn. Dithyrambs were celebratory and festive, honoring Dionysus. Choirs accompanied by an aulos player were the norm.

Music permeated every aspect of ancient Greek society. For instance, from the epic poems of Homer around 750 BC to the tragic choruses of Euripides in the 5th century BC, most Greek poetry was composed to be sung, often with an accompanying dance. In fact, weddings, funerals, religious ceremonies, theatrical performances, and even epic recitations all featured music.

A Note on Reconstructing Ancient Greek Music

Greek poets used long and short syllables to give rhythm to their poems. In English, we use stressed and unstressed syllables (e.g., TA-ble). While it is tempting to try to read the Greek poems according to the meter or rhythm, this author has found that, when doing this, they sound like nonsense; a view echoed by William S. Annis in his article introducing Greek meter.

Ancient Greek was guided by pitch-accent. The voice rose and fell on specific syllables. In the music, this was often mirrored.

Around 400 BC, the Greeks developed two systems of notation: one for vocal music (using letters from alpha to omega) and the other for instruments (a more intricate system of letters, inverted letters, and other symbols). The bishop Alypius tabulated this system around AD 500, and his tabulation has played a role in reconstructing ancient Greek music.

The Seikilos Epitaph and the Orestes papyrus show musical notes, written in letters from the Greek alphabet. Other proof comes from the archeological discoveries of instruments, pictures on vase paintings, and the reconstruction of these instruments, which has helped scholars understand their timbre and pitches.

Lastly, ancient writings by figures like Aristoxenus and Ptolemy have provided scholars with details about tuning systems and ratios among the notes. Philosophers like Aristotle and Plato have written discussions of the harmonic systems, or modes (the ancient Greek equivalent of our modern scales).

Four Examples of Reconstructed Ancient Greek Music

What follows are four famous examples of ancient Greek music that have shaped our understanding of this era’s musical thought and its applications in ceremonies, rituals, and daily life. These examples are presented in chronological order to illustrate the evolution of Greek music across time.

First is the Orestes papyrus fragment, followed by two Delphic hymns to Apollo, the first examples of music where the poet and composer are known by name. The Seikilos Epitaph may be the first example of a memento mori project in musical form. Last, we will see the influence of Roman music on the Greeks through the eyes of Mesomedes.

1. The Euripides Orestes Fragment (ca. 200 BC)

Imagine being pursued by the Furies (Erinyes). During the day, you are plagued by hallucinations, and at night, you have terrible nightmares. The sin? Killing your mother, Clytemnestra, and avenging Agamemnon, your father. The problem is that the Furies would have pursued Orestes either way: if he did not avenge his father, they would be there tormenting him, likewise for committing matricide. The Furies did not look kindly upon family murders. And such is the lot of Orestesin the play by Euripides.

Orestes is perhaps one of the most prized fragments of ancient Greek papyri because it contains seven lines of music written above the text. The chorus is delivering commentary on the events they are witnessing and beseeching the gods to intervene.

It is speculated that Euripides himself, or his musical collaborator, composed the melody. In the melody, a dactylic rhythm is heard: six syllables following a short-short-short long-short-long pattern. This rhythm was often used in Greek tragedies where the passages dealt with intense agitation or grief.

Euripides’s contemporaries often described his music as complex and with a somewhat disjunct melodic style. His music would often depart from the natural contour and rhythm of the text. In this context, it fits the poor character’s turmoil and draws the audience into Orestes’s world.

If it were not for the ancient Egyptian attitude to recycling (think of Tutankhamun’s death mask), this fragment might have been lost. Initially, it was part of a mummy cartonnage: layered papyrus and linen (like papier mâché), which were used to make mummy cases. During the late 19th century, the fragment was discovered/retrieved in Hermopolis, Egypt, from the cartonnage. Archduke Ranier of Austria purchased it along with other papyri in 1893. Today, this fragment is known as Papyrus G 2315, housed in the Austrian National Library in Vienna.

Below is a translation:

“You wild goddesses who dart across the

skies seeking vengeance for murder, we

implore you to free Agamemnon’s son

from his aging fury. We grieve for this

boy. Happiness is brief among mortals.

Sorrow and anguish sweep down on it

like a swift gust of wind on a sloop, and

it sinks under the tossing seas.”

Michael D’Angour and collaborators reconstructed the papyrus fragment into a full performance of the choral episode along with replica instruments in 2017.

2. Two Delphic Hymns to Apollo (ca. 138 BC)

When you faced a major decision, in ancient Greece, you would turn to the Pythia, the Oracle at Delphi. She, as high priestess of the temple of Apollo, would seek guidance, interceding on your behalf with Apollo. Thus, Delphi held an important place in the lives of all Greeks. However, as time passed, it also fell victim to the ravages of time, was forgotten, and fell into ruin.

But Delphi is also home to important ancient Greek musical discoveries, too. French archaeologist Théophile Homolle discovered stone fragments with unusual inscriptions here. His investigation uncovered that they were two hymns dedicated to Apollo. Henri Weil, a philologist, worked on restoring the texts, and musicologist and archaeologist Théodore Reinach transcribed the ancient notation into our modern system.

The two hymns commemorate Apollo’s mythical journey from Delos in a procession that went from Athens to Delphi, called the Athenian Pythaides.

The first hymn (video above), a vocal composition, dates from 138 BC (some scholars argue 128 BC). Even though the heading is damaged, researchers agree that it was composed by Athenaios son of Athenaios (in ancient Greek: Ἀθήναιος Ἀθηναίου or Athēnaios Athēnaiou).

This hymn is divided into two parts: a paean in three verses and a dance song or hyporchema. Various episodes from the god’s life are celebrated, such as his birth, his journey from Athens to Delphi, and other significant events.

In the first verse, the Muses are invited to join their travelers to celebrate Apollo. His connection to the Castalian spring (where the Pythia also cleansed herself before consultations with Apollo) is mentioned, and also Mount Parnassus.

During the second verse, the delegation from Attica and the sacrifice of Arabian incense and young bulls are invoked. The sacrifice is accompanied by pipes (aulos, plural auloi) and the kithara (lyre).

Although fragmented, the final verse addresses Apollo directly, and he is praised for slaying the python (Delphi was known as Pytha during the Bronze Age). Apollo subsequently seized the tripod upon which the Pythia now sits, and the intoxicating vapors are said to rise from a crack where the python decays. Further, Apollo and Artemis are called upon and asked to protect Delphi as they have done during an unsuccessful attack by the Gauls.

Below is the first reconstruction by Reinach and accompaniment by Gabriel Faurè. When you compare the modern reconstruction, it is evident that these two versions sound worlds apart. As scholarly investigation has improved over time, we now have a better idea of what ancient Greek music sounded like.

The Second Delphic Hymn, by Limēnios of Athens, consists of ten sections: nine are in a cretic meter and form the paean, and the tenth is the prosodion using aeolic rhythms. Again, the Muses are invited to celebrate Apollo’s birth on Delos, but also his role as healer and his victories (slaying the python and driving the Gauls away). During the prosodion, Apollo is beseeched to protect Athens and Delphi, and the Roman Empire’s continuity (Greece became a Roman protectorate in 146 BC).

Like the first hymn, Limēnios also calls upon the Muses, continuing to describe Apollo’s birth when the goddess grasped an olive branch during labor, a nod to Athens. It is suggested that the Athenians invented the paean themselves because it describes Apollo’s journey from Attica to Delphi.

The musical structure is sophisticated, with frequent modulations between different modes, including the Phrygian, Lydian, Hyperphrygian, and Hypolydian.

Both hymns illustrate complex shifts between tones spanning more than an octave (eight notes). Intricate rhythmic patterns and melodies relating to the accents of the Greek language form the Greek understanding of scales and modes. All of this gives scholars a way to understand how ancient Greek music functioned and how they used their understanding of music theory.

3. The Seikilos Epitaph (ca. First Century AD)

Before there were memento mori and vanitas portraits, there was the Seikilos epitaph. While the fragment from Orestes preserves theatrical grandeur, the Seikilos epitaph speaks to a more intimate and universal theme: mortality. The marble tombstone was discovered in 1883 near Aydin, Turkey, by Edward Purser.

Its survival is miraculous. It stood, exposed to the elements, for two millennia in Asia Minor and survived the destruction of Smyrna during the Greco-Turkish war between 1919 and 1922.

The last four letters on the base, ΕΥΤΕΡ (Euter-), prove to be a bit of a mystery. The base, already damaged, was sawn flat to allow Mrs. Purser (Edward Purser’s wife) to use the stele as a flowerpot stand. Unfortunately, we do not know what the last lines of text were due to the pillar’s prior damaged state. Today it stands proudly in the National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen.

According to Armand D’Angour, the fragment “EUTER” could be interpreted in several ways. It could be a formula on grave markers that signals that the dedicator survived the dedicatee and created the memorial in their honor. Here, it could be Seikilos who set up the stone as a memorial to his wife Euterpe ΕΥΤΕΡΠΗΙ (“to Euterpe”). She carried the same name as one of the nine muses, and her name means “giver of delight.” But there could also be a bit of vanity involved: if it said ΕΥΤΕΡΠΟΥ, it means Seikilos, “son of Euterpes.”

The dedicator is believed to be Seikilos. Thus, the stone can be interpreted as a husband’s undying love for his departed wife, or a vanity card to mark his place in the world. Unlike other gravestones, the inscription uses the present tense and speaks directly to the reader.

First, the stone “speaks” to the reader and states its purpose:

“I am an image and a stone; Seikilos sets me up here.

as a long-lasting marker of undying memory.”

After the stone has “introduced” itself, it breaks out into song.

Transcription of the Seikilos epitaph, by Armand D’Angour. Source: Antigone Journal

Although the stone melody is relatively simple and written in the Phrygian or Iastian mode, its text strikes us with its poignant message.

Although the Delphic Hymns are filled with complex modulation (key changes) and the Orestes fragment with dramatic intensity, the Seikilos epitaph presents ancient Greek music in a simple form. The notation is complete and straightforward, allowing modern musicians to interpret it without too much trouble.

4. Mesomedes of Crete’s Hymns (ca. Second Century AD)

The first forms of ancient Greek music did not reach us through the ancient Greeks, but through preservation in the Byzantine manuscript tradition. Several of Mesomedes of Crete’s hymns, like Hymn to the Sun, Prayer to the Muse, and Prayer to Calliope and Apollo, were passed down through the generations. Today, they are preserved in Byzantine manuscripts such as Anthologia Palatina. For more than 1,400 years, these melodies were carefully copied and transmitted through the Eastern Roman Empire, even surviving the fall of Constantinople.

Vincenzo Galilei (father of Galileo Galilei) made an intensive study of ancient Greek music and presented his findings in his Dialogo della musica antica e della moderna in 1581, in Florence. Galilei’s three Mesomedes hymns were the only form of ancient Greek music scholars had access to for over three centuries.

Mesomedes served as a freedman and court musician to the Roman Emperor Hadrian. As a composer, he even received a state salary. He was renowned for his lyric poems and skill as a citharode (lyre player). He even enjoyed a close friendship with the emperor and took imperial Roman influences and combined them with the Greek musical traditions. His music represents a major portion of extant and performable (Greco-)Roman music, and his works survived with the notation intact.

Modern analysis has revealed that Mesomedes employed word-painting in his Hymn to the Sun, where melodic contours reflect and accentuate the meaning of the words. The song’s structure suggests it was composed for monodic performance, with a single voice accompanied by the kithara.

Final Thoughts

Through careful analysis and comparison, we can today enjoy the reconstructed sounds of ancient Greek music. Although no interpretation will ever be the definitive or the ultimate one, we are as close as we can get at present.

We may be divided by millennia, but the ancient Greeks laid the foundations of Western music, and today we can enjoy the fruit of archaeologists, musicologists, and other scholars at the click of a button. A simple ancient melody like the Seikilos epitaph still holds us spellbound, and its message echoes through time: “We don’t live for long, my friend, To everything Time demands an end.” But what a time to be alive when we can hear ancient melodies brought to life!

The name Cleopatra is one of the most famous in history, thanks to Cleopatra VII, the last pharaoh of Egypt. She ruled in her own right and was reportedly the lover and ally of both Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, the famous Roman generals. But who were the previous six queens of Egypt who shared her name? Mothers and daughters of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the relationships between these women rarely reflected familial love and devotion. Incestuous marriage alliances and power plays led to war and murder in which the seven Cleopatras were deeply embroiled.

Cleopatra I (c. 204-176 BC)

Cleopatra I, or Cleopatra Syra, was the daughter of King Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire and Queen Laodice III. She entered the Ptolemaic dynasty through her marriage to Ptolemy V Epiphanes (204-180 BC) at just ten years of age. This was an alliance to consolidate peace between the Seleucids and Egypt.

In Alexandria, Cleopatra was given the epithet “the Syrian.” She was incorporated into the Ptolemaic ruler cult, venerated alongside her husband as Theoi Epiphanies (god-like). She was further accorded honors equal to Ptolemy V by the priests at Memphis in 185 BC, as recorded on the Rosetta Stone. Remarkably, Cleopatra held the office of vizier, a rare distinction among Ptolemaic queens.

Following Ptolemy V’s premature death in 180 BC, she assumed regency for her six-year-old son, Ptolemy VI Philometor (180-145 BC), becoming the first Ptolemaic queen to govern independently. Her reign emphasized stability and peace. Her primary objective as regent was to pursue harmony with the Seleucid Empire, while her deceased husband had been preparing for war. Cleopatra’s death around 178–176 BC left power in the hands of her associates, whose ineffectual governance precipitated the Sixth Syrian War.

Cleopatra II (c. 185-116 BC)

Cleopatra II, daughter of Ptolemy V and most likely Cleopatra I, was either the full or half-sister of Ptolemy VI Philometor and Ptolemy VIII Physcon (184-116 BC). She would marry both. Following her mother’s death, she married Ptolemy VI around 175 BC, becoming queen consort and later co-regent with both brothers in 170 BC. Scholars debate whether her reign began with her marriage or co-regency, but she is often credited with ruling for 57 years.

During the invasion of Egypt under Syria’s Antiochus IV in 169–168 BC, Cleopatra II and her siblings resisted with Roman support. Temporarily deposed in 164 BC by Ptolemy VIII, she and Ptolemy VI were restored the following year. After Ptolemy VI died in battle, Cleopatra married her younger brother Ptolemy VIII and gave birth to a child, Ptolemy Memphites.

Ptolemy VIII would later also marry his niece Cleopatra III, his wife Cleopatra II’s daughter. This exacerbated the already existing dynastic rivalry between Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VIII. Cleopatra II initiated a rebellion in 131 BC, ousting her brother and Cleopatra III from Alexandria later the same year. During this conflict, Ptolemy VIII notoriously executed the couple’s son, Ptolemy Memphites, and had his dismembered remains dispatched to Cleopatra II on her birthday.

Cleopatra II ruled Alexandria alone until 127 BC, when Ptolemy VIII regained control, compelling her to seek refuge in Syria with her daughter Cleopatra Thea and Demetrius II Nicator. The estrangement was quashed in 124 BC, and Cleopatra was restored as co-ruler with Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III. She reigned as co-ruler until she died in 116 BC.

Cleopatra III (c. 160-101 BC)

Cleopatra III, or Cleopatra Euergetis, was born in 160 BC to Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VI. Little is known about Cleopatra III’s early life. At the age of twelve, she was married to her uncle, Ptolemy VIII, and became co-ruler alongside her uncle and his other wife, Cleopatra II, who was also her mother.

Following Ptolemy VIII’s death in 116 BC, his will authorized Cleopatra III to select whichever of their sons she deemed fit to succeed. She made it apparent that she favored the younger Ptolemy Alexander over his elder brother, but political tensions forced her to name her elder son, Ptolemy IX, as heir to the throne. Cleopatra III then ruled jointly with her still living mother, Cleopatra II, and her elder son, Ptolemy IX. Meanwhile, Ptolemy Alexander was appointed governor of Cyprus, where he declared himself King Ptolemy X in 114 BC, but this was seen as largely unthreatening.

A greater threat was that Cleopatra III’s daughter, Cleopatra IV, was becoming increasingly zealous after marrying her full brother, Ptolemy IX. To secure her position, Cleopatra III compelled her son, Ptolemy IX, to divorce Cleopatra IV and subsequently marry his younger sister, Cleopatra Selene, thereby reinforcing dynastic control. She distinguished herself among the Egyptian queens by assuming the unprecedented title of “Priest of Alexander.” She also further elevated her authority by appointing priests and priestesses for her own cultic veneration as a living deity.

Tensions escalated as Cleopatra consistently undermined her son’s sovereignty, culminating in 107 BC when she orchestrated his removal through fabricated accusations of attempted assassination. Forced into exile in Cyprus, Ptolemy IX left his children under her guardianship, while Cleopatra Selene was coerced into divorcing him. Cleopatra then installed Ptolemy X Alexander as co-regent. However, the alliance between Cleopatra III and her beloved son fractured, and in October of 101 BC, Cleopatra III was assassinated.

Cleopatra IV (c. 138-112 BC)

Cleopatra IV was the eldest daughter of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III, who married her full brother, Ptolemy IX. She inherited both her mother’s name and ambitious nature. Some theories suggest Cleopatra III was against elevating her eldest son because he was already married to Cleopatra IV, and she feared her daughter’s ambition, which turned out to be an accurate assessment of the situation.

Following the unwanted divorce with her brother, Cleopatra IV fled Egypt to Cyprus, where she married Antiochus IX Cyzicenus, who had been quarreling with his half-brother, Antiochus VIII Grypus. Conflict ensued as both brothers claimed they were the rightful Seleucid King. Grypus’s wife, Cleopatra Tryphaena, Cleopatra IV’s younger sister, ordered her sister’s execution, despite her husband’s protests, resulting in Cleopatra IV’s murder within the sanctuary of Daphne. Both sisters, married to rival Seleucid claimants, became embroiled in dynastic struggles, and Tryphaena was later killed by Cyzicenus.

Cleopatra Selene (c. 135-69 BC)

Whilst technically Cleopatra Selene could be considered the fifth ruling Cleopatra, this honor is typically reserved for a different woman. Cleopatra Selene, the younger daughter of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III, was repeatedly deployed in dynastic politics by her family.

Installed as Egypt’s queen consort with two of her brothers, she later married successive Seleucid rulers, Antiochus VIII, IX, and X, amid civil strife. Ultimately, Tigranes II captured and executed her in 69 BC, when she was in her 60s, attempting to live the remainder of her years in solitude. Likely due to Cleopatra Selene’s extensive time spent in the Seleucid Empire, she is not generally included in the Ptolemaic Cleopatra list.

Cleopatra Berenice III (c. 120-80 BC)

Similarly, Cleopatra Berenice or Berenice III’s multiple names usually discount her from the official list of Cleopatras. Berenice’s mother was either Cleopatra IV or Cleopatra Selene, and she assumed the familiar royal epithet of Cleopatra while on the throne. Berenice briefly ruled independently before appointing her relative, Ptolemy XI, as co-regent under the influence of the Roman general Sulla. Crowned in April of 80 BC, he murdered Berenice less than a month later, provoking Alexandrian riots where he was ambushed and murdered. The throne subsequently passed to Ptolemy XII Auletes (117-51 BC).

Cleopatra V Tryphaena (died c. 69 BC)

Cleopatra Tryphaena, officially named Cleopatra V, remains one of the most enigmatic figures of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Her parentage is unrecorded and subject to considerable scholarly debate. She may have been a daughter of Ptolemy IX or Ptolemy X and Berenice III. Porphyry records that Ptolemy X fled Egypt in 88 BC with his wife Berenice III and a daughter, possibly Cleopatra Tryphaena.

Cleopatra V is the only securely attested wife of Ptolemy XII, and her only known child is Berenice IV, though she is often also considered to be the mother of Cleopatra VII. Her death is uncertain, possibly occurring around 69 BC, though she may have survived as the co-ruler Cleopatra VI. Sparse records and conflicting traditions render her life obscure, yet she had a clearly significant dynastic role.

Cleopatra VI (died c. 57 BC)

Cleopatra VI, possibly a daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes, may have been the elder sibling of the more infamous Berenice IV, Cleopatra VII, Ptolemy XIII, Ptolemy XIV, and Arsinoe IV. Alternatively, she may have been Cleopatra V rebranded.

In 59 BC, Julius Caesar, then consul of Rome, was believed to favor the annexation of Egypt, citing Ptolemy XII’s alleged illegitimacy. To secure his position, Ptolemy expended vast sums to purchase Caesar’s support, leading to Roman recognition of his kingship. However, the treaty excluded Cyprus, where Ptolemy’s brother ruled. The following year saw Rome occupy Cyprus, prompting his brother’s suicide.

The economic strain of bribes and the loss of Cyprus incited unrest in Alexandria, forcing the Egyptian Pharaoh to seek Roman military aid again. During his absence, Ptolemy XII was deposed, and his eldest daughter, Berenice IV, was elevated to the throne along with Cleopatra VI.

While scholars’ opinions differ, the inconclusiveness surrounding Cleopatra V’s death, combined with her co-rulership and title, Tryphaena, which was habitually used to describe the wife of the king, all suggest that Cleopatra VI was not Berenice IV’s sister. In contrast, she could have been a different consort of Ptolemy XII or another senior woman at court.

Regardless, Cleopatra VI died in 57 BC, leaving Berenice sole queen until 55 BC, when Ptolemy XII returned with Roman forces, defeated his daughter, and reclaimed the throne. His restoration was marked by the execution of Berenice IV, punished for usurping royal authority.

Cleopatra VII (c. 69-30 BC)

Roman involvement in Egypt, therefore, long preceded the reign of Cleopatra VII Thea Philopater. Born in 69 BC to Ptolemy XII, Cleopatra accompanied her father during his exile near Rome, where financiers sought his restoration. Pompey persuaded Aulus Gabinius, governor of Syria, to invade Egypt in exchange for 10,000 talents.

Ptolemy XII died before March of 51 BC, leaving Cleopatra to confront famine, Nile drought, and the disruptive Gabiniani, Roman soldiers left as a garrison. She inherited debts of 17.5 million drachmas to Rome. In 50 BC, Gabiniani murdered the sons of Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, prompting Cleopatra to hand over the culprits, though Bibulus rebuked her for interfering in Roman jurisdiction.

By August of 51 BC, Cleopatra was listed as sole ruler, rejecting co-regency with her brother Ptolemy XIII. But with his powerful allies, Ptolemy defeated Cleopatra, who fled to Thebes, later raising an army in Syria with Arsinoe IV. Meanwhile, Ptolemy XIII sent the Roman general Pompey’s severed head to Caesar, who arrived in Alexandria. Even though Pompey was an outlaw by this time, the Romans again did not appreciate interference in their politics. Caesar therefore preferred Cleopatra as ruler, and was also reportedly personally charmed by Cleopatra’s intelligence and humor.

Cleopatra’s fortunes shifted during the Alexandrian War. Arsinoe IV allied with Cleopatra’s enemies and their brother Ptolemy XIII. Caesar and Cleopatra endured a palace siege until reinforcements arrived, which resulted in Ptolemy XIII’s defeat and drowning. Arsinoe was paraded in Caesar’s triumph and exiled, while Cleopatra, pregnant with Caesar’s child, remained in Alexandria. Caesar appointed her co-ruler with Ptolemy XIV. In 47 BC, she bore Caesarion, publicly naming Caesar as father. After Caesar’s assassination in 44 BC, Cleopatra allegedly poisoned Ptolemy XIV, elevating Caesarion as co-regent.

Cleopatra strategically aligned with Mark Antony after Caesar’s death, inviting him to Egypt in 41 BC. She secured Cilicia and Cyprus through him and bore him three children: twins Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II in 40 BC, and Ptolemy Philadelphus in 36 BC. Octavian exploited Antony’s concessions to Cleopatra, portraying her as a dangerous foreign queen and Antony as a villain for betraying his loving, Roman wife, and his own sister, Octavia.

The Battle of Actium resulted in a resounding defeat for the couple, which strained their relationship. Cleopatra contemplated abdication in favor of Caesarion, though her fleet was destroyed, forcing her to remain and negotiate with Octavian. The negotiations were fruitless and ultimately ended in a stalemate. Both Cleopatra VII and Anthony committed suicide, her son Caesarion was assassinated, and the fate of her other children is largely debated.

The Seven Cleopatras

Across the generations, the Ptolemaic queens bore the name Cleopatra, meaning “glory of her father.” Each Cleopatra, from the lesser-known sisters and daughters to the famed Cleopatra VII, wielded dynastic marriages, political alliances, and calculated betrayals as instruments of survival and dominance.

Their ambitions were not merely personal but dynastic, seeking to preserve Egypt’s sovereignty in the face of internal rivalries and Roman encroachment. Strategically, they exploited opportunities, yet their ruthlessness was equally evident. Sisters executed one another, rivals were assassinated, and even children were sacrificed in the name of power.

Since the earliest civilization, people have believed in the divine and its ability to influence events on Earth. Many also believed that the gods sent signs about their wishes, which manifested in the natural world and could be interpreted. They tracked the stars, read the entrails of animals, and put themselves in altered states to receive these messages. The Romans were no different, and if you asked one of them, they would probably tell you that they had perfected the art of divination. Their success proved as much. Divination was deeply integrated in Roman political life, with Rome’s leading men serving as magistrates, generals, and priests. Politics and religion overlapped, and divination would have a profound impact on politics.

Roman Divination

In Rome, every public or private action required ritual consultation of the gods. This tradition was as old as Romulus, credited with founding the city of Rome in 753 BC.

Cicero, a 1st century BC statesman and one of the few people in the Republic’s history to hold the title of Pater Patriae, Father of the Fatherland, said that Romans only excelled other peoples in one critical area. They were physically weaker than the Gauls, less cunning than the Carthaginians, less artistic than the Greeks, and less naturally acute than the other Italic peoples. But where the Romans were superior was in piety and the wisdom to know that all things are governed by the gods.

This was true of someone’s personal life, in which they would seek guidance for things such as marriages or to diagnose illness in crops, and extended to the governance of the state. Inaugurating magistrates, economic policy, and military decisions were all dependent on receiving favorable auspices.

The Romans believed that divine messages were about oneself and their own affairs, provided they were the worthiest recipient of the message. This meant that the person best positioned to act on a message would be the one to whom it was addressed.

Omens were interpreted from the perspective of the viewer, so anything that reached the ears of the Senate, whether they experienced the omen personally or second-hand, was to be interpreted as a message regarding the state, not the individual. This can be seen in passages from Livy when describing the hermaphrodite births among the Sabines or the two-headed boy from Veii. These omens were likely interpreted by the affected families as being addressed to them, yet once the Senate heard of them, they were messages for the Republic.

What Are Signs?

Signs from the gods were messages of their approval or warnings about the future. They varied widely in form, from flashes of lightning to the flight of birds, to whether or not sacred chickens ate their grain.

Generally, they were divided into two groups: auspices and omens. Auspices were requested signs seeking the gods’ approval for an action about to be undertaken. They made no judgments on the merits of the action, only whether or not it can be performed on a specific day. Omens were unsolicited signs, generally showing the gods’ disapproval and foretelling disaster. Omens could also be a natural disaster, such as an earthquake or a plague, which served as expressions of divine anger.

The difference between auspices and omens can be seen in a passage from Valerius Maximus. When Tiberius Gracchus was intensifying his reforms, he took the auspices in the morning, and they were unfavorable, but he carried on anyway. As he left his house, he stubbed his foot hard enough to break a toe, and later three crows cawed when they saw him and dropped a piece of tile in front of him. He ignored these signs and was killed by a violent mob.

How Were Signs Interpreted?

There were several positions in the Roman government dedicated to interpreting signs from the gods. The most important office was that of augur. They were part of all public proceedings and made sure that the signs from the gods were favorable for whatever action was about to be undertaken. They also provided remedies in case the signs were unfavorable. It was not uncommon that state festivals were repeated because the augurs received unfavorable signs. This gave them an enormous amount of political power, which could be used to obstruct certain proposals or elections.

A common practice was observing the flight of birds. The flight direction, species of bird, and their cries were all factors in the interpretation. The person who was seeking auspices from the gods would choose a location and designate an area in the sky where they would watch for signs. For the state, this was presided over by an augur. The augur would then provide a prayer and ask the gods to provide signs.

Augurs were also present during comitia and senate meetings, keeping watch on the sky for ill omens. These could be the flight of birds, but also the species or the sounds. They also listened for lightning, and if they interpreted any of these signs to be inauspicious, they could call an end to the meeting.

Augurs weren’t the only magistrates empowered to take the auspices. Each magistrate could conduct auspices on their own, but if the outcome proved negative, the Senate could reverse the action by claiming that they did not take the auspices properly.

Pax Deorum

Roughly translated to “peace with the gods,” pax deorum was an important part of Roman life. It was the positive relationship the Romans had with the gods, and anything that disrupted it invited ira deorum, “anger of the gods.” The pax deorum was sought from every ritual, from every priestly magistracy. It was not a constant state, and it was fleeting. Obtaining pax deorum through proper rites helped to avert disaster and obtain success. This was why generals sought pax deorum before battle.

Livy provides some examples of the consequences of acquiring it or not. In 390 BC, the consular tribune Sulpicius engaged the Gauls despite not receiving good auspices, which resulted in a devastating loss for the Romans. This is contrasted by the Roman dictator Cornelius Cossus, who, in 459 BC, marshaled the Roman people against the Volsci. After receiving good auspices, he engaged the enemy and was victorious.

Obstructionist Omens

By the late 1st century BC, religious rites for the election of magistrates were still conducted, but auspices were not observed. The ritual was alive in form only, and the office of augur had become more of a political position than a religious one. Rivals could claim unfavorable auspices against each other to undermine or even expel one from their magistracy. They would also delay proceedings indefinitely. Similar to the filibuster in the United States today, Romans need not even see negative signs; they merely needed to claim that they would be “watching the skies.”

This is best exemplified by the rivalry between Julius Caesar and Calpurnius Bibulus. They were co-consuls in 59 BC, and Caesar was trying to pass land redistribution laws that were popular among the public but not with the senate. As a way to obstruct Caesar, Bibulus cited poor auspices to adjourn assemblies and postpone votes. This didn’t stop Caesar, however, and Bibulus was eventually sidelined from public affairs. Nevertheless, the tactic inspired Cicero to sarcastically call Bibulus: “he who by delays alone restored our state.”

Signs of Divine Favor

Given the Romans’ belief that the gods provided clear signs about their will and that messages were meant for those with the most power to affect the outcome, political leaders who were legitimately approved by the gods should be successful in their endeavors. This gave them the appearance of being foresighted, and their success was itself proof of their divine approval. Prominent Romans would eventually come to use this perception to portray themselves as under the patronage of a god.

By the late Republic, many leaders had begun claiming divine favor. Figures like Sulla, Julius Caesar, Octavian, and Mark Antony. Nowhere is this better attested than with the career of Octavian. Good omens seemed to follow him from birth. From as early as the 30s BC, there were reports that he was the son of Apollo. According to Suetonius, Caesar made Octavian his heir because of an omen he had witnessed of a tree spontaneously growing from sapling to maturity within a few days. Reports on Octavian’s entry into Rome in 44 BC claimed that his head was surrounded by a halo. All these signs, among others, lent authority and legitimacy to Octavian’s political power, and that same power was proof of his divine favor.

Reconfiguration of Auspices Under Augustus

Under Octavian, certain priesthoods were reestablished, and temples were restored. One of his most symbolically charged acts was the closing of the Gates of Janus, a ritual that signified the absence of external war and the restoration of peace. This framed Octavian as the restorer of the pax deorum and, in the mind of the Romans, made him the one through whom the gods would communicate with the Romans.

With his assumption of the title of Augustus, he positioned himself as the natural addressee of all divine messages concerning the state. In Augustus’ Res Gestae, which acts as an autobiography of all of his achievements, he often noted that victories occurred under his auspices, demonstrating that he acted in accordance with the will of the gods. Augustus’ influence was not based on any power granted to him by the state, but by the cumulative weight of his achievements. His very success proved that he was an arbiter of divine will and the one who was most suited to interpret signs from the gods.

Sources

• Bailey, C. (1932). “Chapter V The Gods: Institutional Religion—The State-Cult,” Phases in the Religion of Ancient Rome (1st ed., Vol. 10, pp. 144–176). University of California Press.
• Kearsley, R. (2009). “Octavian and Augury: The Years 30-27 B.C.” The Classical Quarterly, 59(1), 147–166.
• Lebovitz, A. (2015). “Obstruction and Emergency in Late Republican Rome,” History of Political Thought, 36(3), 419–451.
• Ripat, P. (2006). “Roman Omens, Roman Audiences, and Roman History,” Greece & Rome, 53(2), 155–174.
• Satterfield, S. (2015). “Prodigies, The Pax Deum, and The Ira Deum,” The Classical Journal, 110(4), 431–445.
• Szemler, G. J. (1971). “Religion, Priesthoods and Magistracies in the Roman Republic,” Numen, 18(2), 103–131.
• Taylor, R. (2000). “Watching the Skies: Janus, Auspication, and the Shrine in the Roman Forum,” Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, 45, 1–40.

The world in which Christianity arose had two great influences that shaped the new religion: Judaism, from which Christianity was born, and Hellenism, the Greek culture, rooted in Plato and other philosophers. Following the time of the New Testament, Christians needed to respond to the culture in which they lived and to expand and apply the foundation created primarily by the Apostle Paul. Among the earliest apologists of the new Christian faith was Justin Martyr.

Where Was Justin Martyr From, and How Did He Encounter Christianity?

Justin was born in Flavia Neapolis, in modern-day Palestine, to a Greek/Roman family. While little is known of his upbringing, he encountered various schools of philosophy. He learned the rigors of stoicism, the Peripatetic School of Aristotle, and dabbled with the philosophy of Pythagoras, rejecting all for one reason or another. Justin had settled on Platonism, as he believed it provided a more practical path to God. He later encountered a Christian on a seaside walk who explained to him that the truth of God was more found through the prophets rather than philosophers. In Justin’s Dialogue with Trypho, he writes:

“For they did not use demonstration in their treatises, seeing that they were witnesses to the truth above all demonstration, and worthy of belief; and those events which have happened, and those which are happening, compel you to assent to the utterances made by them, although, indeed, they were entitled to credit on account of the miracles which they performed, since they both glorified the Creator, the God and Father of all things, and proclaimed His Son, the Christ [sent] by Him.”

What Was Justin’s Philosophy?

Rather than enter the priesthood, Justin became more of a freelance philosopher, eventually opening a school in Rome. He believed that, in Christianity, “[Justin] found this philosophy alone to be safe and profitable,” and began teaching Christianity as the true philosophy that all other truths pointed toward.

Justin viewed Christianity as both practical for living and true as philosophy at the same time, something that was not necessarily found in other philosophies. Christianity not only provided a reasonable way to God, but also a moral way for practical living. When Christianity came under attack, he wrote his First and Second Apology defending Christianity not only as being true philosophically, but also as Christians being good and sound citizens in the Roman Empire, and that they should not be condemned based upon their religion alone.

One of the great charges against Christians that Justin defended against was that the Romans considered Christians atheists, as they did not worship the Roman gods.  Justin writes in his First Apology:

“So, then, we are called godless. We certainly confess that we are godless with reference to beings like these who are commonly thought of as gods, but not with reference to the most true God…”

What Happened to Justin Martyr?

Despite his excellent defense of Christianity, Justin’s nickname of “martyr” was well-earned. The Martyrdom of Justin, dated around 165 AD, records that Justin and six of his students were arrested by the Roman prefect Junius Rusticus, possibly at the behest of the cynic philosopher Crescens, whom Justin had debated. Rusticus pushed Justin and his students to perform sacrifices to Roman gods, to which Justin replied:

“Through prayer we can be saved on account of our Lord Jesus Christ, even when we have been punished, because this shall become to us salvation and confidence at the more fearful and universal judgment-seat of our Lord and Savior.”  

Justin and his students were then scourged and beheaded, and their bodies possibly secreted away by fellow believers.

Justin is now celebrated as one of the first apologists of the church, with some of his defenses of the faith still a part of the rationale behind Christianity.

More than 4,600 years ago, a commoner named Imhotep rose through ancient Egypt’s administrative ranks to become the pharaoh’s chief architect, priest, and chancellor. His name was inscribed next to the pharaoh’s own on important monuments, showing his immense influence. Owing to his many accomplishments, including the construction of Egypt’s first pyramid, Imhotep was hailed as a sage and eventually raised to the status of a god, associated with medicine and scribal arts.

Egypt in the Early Dynastic Period

The Early Dynastic Period began with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the leadership of the pharaoh. The new centralized government expanded to administer the large and diverse territory. The Egyptians did not use money. All taxes were in the form of agricultural surplus, which supported the pharaoh, his administration, and full-time specialists such as craftsmen.

It was during this time that Egypt’s famous mortuary cult became prevalent. In North Saqqara, large, flat-roofed, mudbrick superstructures called mastabas housed the remains of local elites. The term mastaba comes from Arabic, meaning “bench,” which is what these tombs resembled. This sort of tomb was common for the upper classes, including the pharaoh. They consisted of both the tomb itself and a ceremonial enclosure surrounding it.

At Abydos, where the early royal tombs were located, the best surviving examples of monumental structures are the royal funerary enclosures reaching at least 10 feet tall, built of mudbrick. One hypothesis is that the surrounding enclosures were designed to be purposefully dismantled following the pharaoh’s death, symbolically transferring it for his use in the afterlife. The only enclosure remaining belonged to Khasekhemwy, the last pharaoh of the 2nd dynasty (c. 2890-2686 BC). This may indicate a time when there was a move towards more permanent royal funerary structures. This development would set the stage for Imhotep’s career.

The Third Dynasty and the Reign of Djoser

A seal of the pharaoh Djoser was found in Khasekhemwy’s tomb, suggesting that he succeeded the 2nd Dynasty pharaoh and completed his tomb. Djoser was likely the previous pharaoh’s son, given that Khasekhemwy’s wife, Nimaathap, was called in her sealings “King’s Mother.” Nevertheless, Djoser is considered the founder of the new 3rd dynasty (c. 2686-2613 BC).

The 3rd dynasty saw royal tombs move from Abydos to Saqqara, where they took on a more monumental form. Sadly, not much is known of Djoser’s reign, but he was evidently considered to be an important figure for the Egyptians themselves. In a manuscript called the Turin King-list, or Royal Canon of Turin, the entry containing Djoser’s name was recorded in red ink, which was used to highlight certain words like headings or summations; usually, only the initial word was in red. Djoser’s entire entry was highlighted in red, emphasizing his importance.

Today, Djoser is mostly known for the stepped pyramid at Saqqara, now called the Step Pyramid of Djoser, which was the first monumental architecture built in stone. Before Djoser, stone was used in certain elements of architecture, but never formed the entire structure. Behind this unprecedented change stood the king’s chief architect and administrator, Imhotep.

Who Was Imhotep?

Imhotep is credited with creating the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, the first monumental building of its kind and the precursor to the later Great Pyramids at Giza.

The earliest attestation of Imhotep’s name is on the base of the statue of the pharaoh Djoser. On this inscription, he is given the titles: Chancellor, First after the King, Administrator of the Great Palace, Nobleman, High Priest at Heliopolis, Chief Sculptor, and Vase-Maker. These clearly show the high regard the pharaoh had for him.

He was generally considered a commoner, which makes his reputation all the more impressive. However, it is also possible that he was Djoser’s son or was somehow related to the pharaoh.

By the Late Period (c. 664-332 BC), he was regarded as a sage and a genius, and eventually even as the son of the god, Ptah. He was also linked with the later sage Amenhotep-son-of-Hapu, a high official of the reign of Amenhotep III. Both were considered deified patrons of physicians and scribes.

No tomb with Imhotep’s name has been found, but he likely would have been buried in North Saqqara. Two tombs attributed to the 3rd Dynasty have been discovered in the area that have a different rotation to the surrounding tombs but are aligned with the Step Pyramid. This suggests that they were connected with Djoser, and perhaps Imhotep.

Another piece of evidence that suggests Imhotep may be buried in this area is that it lies above the later temple complex of the Sacred Animal Necropolis, where baboons sacred to Thoth were buried. As a patron of learning, Imhotep was associated with Thoth, and votive offerings in his image were regularly deposited in the temple. However, the absence of any textual evidence makes this purely speculative.

The Step Pyramid of Djoser

The Step Pyramid of Djoser is not only the first pyramid in Egypt, and not only the first large-scale stone structure in Egypt, but the first known monumental stone structure in the world. The importance of the structure cannot be understated. It signifies the capacity of the state to control and organize both material and human resources in a way that was impossible before.

The Step Pyramid complex covers an area of 15 hectares, surrounded by niched limestone walls. The original construction plan for the pyramid was changed several times, and it was built in six stages. It was first built as a square mastaba, which is already uncommon for a mastaba, and then expanded on all sides. The structure was then expanded again on the east side, giving it the typical rectangular shape. The next two stages of construction built it upwards to four steps, and then six.

The reason for the change in shape from a mastaba to a pyramid is still debated. A prevailing theory is that the pyramid may have been supposed to represent a massive staircase to heaven that was described in the later Pyramid Texts. It could have also been a solar monument given the pharaoh’s connection to the sun-god Ra and Imhotep’s position as high priest of the god.

Architectural Legacy

With his Step Pyramid, Imhotep started an age of pyramid building and architectural experimentation. Sneferu, the first king of the 4th Dynasty (c. 2613-2494 BC), built three pyramids in his lifetime. First was the Maidum Pyramid, which was constructed as a true, four-sided pyramid, but was suddenly abandoned in the middle of his reign. It was suggested that it collapsed, but there is no evidence to support this.

Sneferu then constructed the so-called Bent Pyramid, which, as its name might suggest, started at a 55-degree incline in its lower courses and then suddenly changed to a 44-degree incline in the upper courses. The reason for this change in slope was that the interior core of the pyramid was unstable, and the architects needed to make modifications.

The final pyramid was the North Pyramid, a true pyramid with a much more solid core to support the structure.

The most obvious legacies of Imhotep’s architectural innovation are the Great Pyramids of Giza. Khufu, the son of Sneferu, built the first pyramid, the Great Pyramid. The base of the pyramid covers 5.3 hectares, and each side faces one of the four cardinal points. It reached a towering height of 146.7 meters and was covered in brilliant white limestone.

Khafra, the son of Khufu, built the second pyramid at Giza. Despite visually appearing taller than Khufu’s pyramid, Khafra’s is actually shorter. Measuring 143.5 meters. The optical illusion is caused by its construction being on higher ground. There is a slight twist near the top, indicating that there was an issue with getting the four corners to meet.

The third pyramid belonged to Menkaura, though it was never finished. It was also much smaller than its predecessors, being only 65 meters tall and each side only half the length of Khufu and Khafra’s.

Cult of Imhotep

Imhotep was not solely remembered as an architect, but as a patron of medicine and learning. It was his many accomplishments that led to him being considered a god. He was considered a benevolent god who could help the needy and sometimes given the epithet “Beneficent.”

The cult of Imhotep was widespread across Egypt. It had centers in Memphis, Saqqara, Armant, Dendera, and Aswan. Later sources retroactively grant Imhotep a semi-divine status, and he was fully deified by the Ptolemaic Period. In Thebes, there is evidence of Imhotep’s worship up until the 1st century AD.

On the western side of Thebes, at Deir el Bahari, a small chapel was hollowed out behind the sanctuary built during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut. Greek graffiti shows that people traveled to his temple in search of healing alongside other gods like Amenhotep and Hygieia. His cult was practiced within the temple of Ptah, an Egyptian creator god who conceived the world and was considered the patron of craftsmen.

Though he had a strong presence in Thebes, his main cult center was near the Necropolis at Memphis. At the time, he was worshiped in conjunction with Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine. Greek sources hint at the existence of a temple called the Asclepion in North Saqqara, but no archaeological evidence for the temple has been found.

Greco-Roman Comparison

In the Hellenistic period, Imhotep was identified by the Greeks as their god Asclepius. This is clearly shown in a 2nd-century AD text called the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, where the son of Ptah, Imouthes, another name for Imhotep, is directly compared with Asclepius.

The section, Oxyrhynchus 1381, is thought to have been written by a high-ranking judicial official named Nechautes. He told a story of a time the god appeared to his mother in dreams and told her how to cure a disease she suffered from. Nechautes himself also entreated the god for healing when he was afflicted by a pain in his side. He developed a fever and fell into a half-sleep. While he slept, his mother had a vision of a tall figure in a shining raiment carrying a book in his left hand. When he woke, his fever was cured. When his mother told him what she had seen, he anticipated her story because he had seen the same in a dream. Nechautes then directly names Asclepius and Imhotep, uniting them as the same deity.

“And as the discoverer of this art, Asclepius, greatest of gods and my teacher, thou art distinguished by the thanks of all men. For every gift of a votive offering or sacrifice lasts only for the immediate moment, and presently perishes, while a written record is an undying meed of gratitude, from time to time renewing its youth in the memory. Every Greek tongue will tell thy story, and every Greek man will worship the son of Ptah, Imouthes.”

Sources

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